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BIRTHPLACES  AND  HOMES  OF  FAMOUS    PRESIDENTS. 


Monticello,  which  is  near  Charlotteville,  Va.,  was  built  by  Jefferson's  father,  1735, 
and  here  the  author  of   the    Declaration    of   Independence  was  born 
April  2,  1743,  and  died  July  4,  1826. 

Mount  Vernon,  on  the  western  banks  of  the   Potomac,  Fairfax  County,  Va.,  was 
built  by  Lawrence  Washington,  1745,  and  named  in  honor  of  Admiral 
Vernon.     It  was  the  home  of  Washington  for  many  years,  and  here  he 
died  December  14,  1799. 

The  Birthplace   of  Washington  was  in  Westmoreland  County,  Virginia,  February 

22,  1732,  in  a  cabin  of  three  rooms,  where  he  lived 
until  he  was  sixteen  years  of  age,  when  he  left  school  to  become  a 
surveyor. 

The    Hermitage  was  the  home  of  Andrew  Jackson,  in  which  he  lived  during  the  last 
twenty-five  years  of  his  life.     He  removed  to  the  place  near  Nash- 
ville, in  1804,  but  the  house  in  which  he  last  lived  was  not  built  until 
1819.     It  is  still  maintained  as  a  historic  shrine. 

Lincoln's    Birthplace  was  a  miserable  shanty  in  Hardin  County,  Kentucky,  where 
he  lived  until   1816,  when  the  family  moved  to  Indiana,  and 
thence,  in  1830,  to  Illinois. 

Lincoln's  Residence,  when   he  was  elected   President,  was  in    Springfield,  111.,  a 
frame  building  that  is  still  standing,  but  in  a  dilapidated 
condition,  no  attempt  being  made  to  preserve  it. 

Garfield's  Birthplace  was  a  log  cabin  near  the  village  of  Orange,  Cuyahoga  County, 
Ohio,  where  he  spent  his  youth  in  hardest  toil.     No  trace  of  the 
cabin  is  now  visible. 

D^eJJNebster^Jlirth place  was  a  small  frame  house  in  the  village  of  Salisbury, 
N.   H.      Webster's  ambitions  to  be  President  were 
never  realized,  notwithstanding  his  great  popularity. 


*s 


LIBRARY  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 


Encyclopedic  Dictionary  of 
American  Reference 

,       BY 

J.  Franklin  Jameson,  Ph.  D. 

Professor  of  History  in  Brown  University 

AND 

J.  W.  BUEL,  Ph.  D. 

Historian 


*  or    1,1  r     \ 

UNJ  i'TY 


*    DE  LUXE  LIBRARY  EDITION    j* 


1  ** 

-S"5- 

'  7-x 

Copyright  igoi 
C    R.  GRAHAM 


ENCYCLOPEDIC    DICTIONARY    OF 
AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


A. 

Abercrombie,  James  (i 706-1781),  a  British  major-general,  com- 
manding in  America  during  part  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  1758. 
He  failed  disastrously  in  an  attack  on  Ticonderoga  in  July,  1758,  losing 
2,000  men  killed  and  wounded  out  of  a  force  of  15,000,  and  was  replaced 
by  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst. 

Abingdon,  Va.,  was  captured  on  December  15,  1864,  by  Burbridge's 
division  of  Stoneinau's  (Federal)  cavalry,  which  defeated  Echols  (Con- 
federate). 

Ableman  vs.  Booth,  an  important  Supreme  Court  case  from  Wis- 
consin. In  1854,  Booth  was  tried  before  a  commissioner  appointed  by 
the  U.  S.  District  Court  of  Wisconsin  for  violation  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law  of  1850.  He  was  commanded  to  appear  before  the  District  Court, 
and,  failing  to  do  so,  was  imprisoned  by  the  U.  S.  Marshal  Ableman. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  Wisconsin  issued  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  and 
Booth  was  released.  Later  the  U.  S.  District  Court  found  an  indictment 
against  him.  He  again  appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  and 
was  released.  The  case  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  1858.  That  body  reversed  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Wisconsin.  Booth  had  pleaded  the  unconstitutionality  of  the  Fugi- 
tive Slave  Law.  The  constitutionality  of  that  law  was  now  maintained 
by  the  court.  It  was  also  held  that  the  marshal,  in  matters  of  habeas 
corpus,  must  obey  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States  rather  than  that 
of  the  State,  the  latter  having  no  authority  within  the  limits  of  the 
sovereignty  assigned  by  the  Constitution  to  the  United  States. 

Abolitionists,  a  party  or  body  of  men  bent  on  securing  the  immedi- 
ate abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States.     Throughout  the  eight- 
eenth century  there  had  been  a  sentiment,  more  or  less  widespread,  in 
Vol.  V.— 2  17 

84189 


<$  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

favor  of  the  emancipation  of  slaves.  At  about  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  most  of  the  Northern  States  provided  for  emancipation, 
immediate  or  gradual.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  several  abolition 
societies  had  been  formed.  In  1816  interest  in  the  matter  revived,  and 
the  American  Colonization  Society  was  organized,  its  object  being  to 
promote  emancipation  and  to  colonize  the  freed  negroes  in  Africa.  But 
the  movement  took  on  a  new  character  with  the  beginning  of  the  work 
of  William  L,loyd  Garrison  in  1829,  and  with  the  formation  of  the 
American  Anti-Slavery  Society  in  1833,  and  the  term  Abolitionist  is 
generally  applied  rather  to  those  who  took  part  in  this  new  agitation 
than  to  their  less  uncompromising  predecessors.  Garrison  demanded 
the  immediate  and  total  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  country,  all 
laws  and  constitutions  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  The  Aboli- 
tionists soon  divided,  Garrison  and  his  followers  holding  aloof  from  all 
connection  with  political  action  under  the  Constitution,  and  advocating 
disunion,  while  another  wing  of  the  agitators,  under  the  name  of  the 
Liberty  Party,  put  forward  candidates  and  took  part  in  the  presidential 
election  of  1840  and  1844.  In  1848  these  joined  the  Free-soilers,  and  in 
1855  and  1856  the  Republican  party.  Throughout  the  years  from  1833 
to  1863  the  Abolitionists  continued  their  agitation.  They  did  much  to 
rouse  Northern  sentiment  against  slavery,  to  bring  on  the  Civil  War, 
and  to  secure,  among  its  results,  the  emancipation  of  all  slaves.  The 
leaders  of  the  radical  Abolitionists  were,  beside  Garrison  himself,  Wen- 
dell Phillips,  John  G.  Whittier,  Edmund  Quincy,  Samuel  J.  May, 
William  Jay  and  others. 

Abraham,  Plains  of.  During  the  French  and  English  War.  On 
the  evening  of  September  12,  1759,  General  Wolfe  made  a  desperate 
attempt  upon  Quebec.  While  the  fleet  attacked  below  the  town  WTolfe 
and  his  men  scaled  the  heights  above  the  city,  routed  the  sentries  and 
took  his  position  with  3,500  troops.  The  French  under  Montcalm  arrived 
early  in  the  morning,  made  a  somewhat  disorderly  attack  and  were 
beaten.  Both  generals  were  killed.  The  loss  of  the  English  was  664, 
of  the  French  640. 

Academies,  a  name  given  in  the  United  States  to  two  classes  of  in- 
stitutions :  learned  bodies,  such  as  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  incorporated  private  institutions  for  secondary  education.  Of  the 
former  class,  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  founded 
at  Boston  in  1780,  the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in 
1799,  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1807.  The  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  was  founded  in  1863,  to  "investigate,  examine, 
experiment  and  report  upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art,"  whenever 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  i9 

called  upon  by  any  department  of  the  national  government.  Of  the 
latter  class,  a  few  dozen  were  in  existence  in  1789.  Perhaps  the  most 
famous  of  these  are  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass.,  and  Phillips 
Academy,  Exeter,  N.  H.,  founded  in  1780  and  1781,  respectively. 

Acadia,  or  Acadie,  the  name  given  by  the  French  to  a  province  of 
their  colonial  empire  in  America,  consisting  of  what  is  now  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick  and  part  of  Maine,  the  important  part  being  Nova 
Scotia.  De  Monts  settled  it  in  1604.  It  was  claimed  by  England. 
Argall  conquered  it  in  1613.  James  I.  gave  it  to  Sir  William  Alexander, 
but  he  could  not  hold  it.  It  was  in  English  hands  from  1654  to  1657. 
It  was  conquered  by  Sir  William  Phipps  and  New  England  troops  in 
1690,  but  retaken  in  1691.  Further  attempts  were  made  in  1704,  1707 
and  1 7 10.  The  last  was  successful,  and  in  17 13  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
gave  Acadia  to  England.  Under  British  government  the  Acadians  were 
accused  of  abusing  their  privileges  as  neutrals.  In  1755  several  thou- 
sand of  them  were  transported,  with  much  harsh  treatment,  to  the  British 
provinces  southward.  (Longfellow's  "  Evangeline  "  is  founded  upon 
this  act  of  expatriation.)     Many  made  their  way  to  Louisiana. 

Acre  Right,  the  share  owned  by  any  one  in  the  common  lands  of 
New  England  towns.  Their  value  varied  in  different  towns,  but  was  a 
fixed  quantity  in  each  town.  In  Billerica,  for  instance,  a  ten-acre  lot  or 
right  was  equivalent  to  1 13  acres  of  upland  and  twelve  acres  of  meadow, 
and  so  on  in  exact  proportion. 

"Acts  and  Resolves,"  a  publication  issued  by  the  government  of 
Massachusetts,  edited  by  Abner  C.  Goodell,  Jr.  It  comprises  all  the 
acts  and  resolves  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  from  1691  to  1780, 
including  those  obsolete  and  repealed.     Publication  began  in  1869. 

Adair,  John,  born  1757,  died  1840.  He  was  an  American  general 
in  the  war  against  England,  1812,  and  commanded  the  Kentucky  troops 
in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

Adairsville,  Ga.,  scene  of  an  engagement  in  the  Civil  War,  May 
17,  1864,  between  Sherman's  forces  and  those  of  Joseph  Johnston — one 
episode  in  the  continuous  fighting  which  marked  Johnston's  retreat 
from  Dalton  to  Atlanta. 

"  Adams  and  liberty,"  a  song  written  by  Robert  Treat  Paine,  Jr., 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  during  the  time  of  John  Adams'  spirited 
resistance  to  French  aggressions  in  1798  and  1799.  The  air,  formerly 
called  "  Anacreon  in  Heaven,"  is  that  now  known  as  the  "Star-Spangled 
Banner." 


20  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Adams,  Abigail  (1744-1818),  wife  of  President  John  Adams, 
daughter  of  Rev.  William  Smith,  of  Weymouth,  Mass.  She  was  a 
woman  of  great  spirit,  good  sense,  strength  of  character  and  patriotism. 
Her  letters  to  her  husband,  published  1848,  are  interesting  and  valuable 
historically. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis  (1807- 1886),  son  of  John  Quincy  Adams, 
was  born  in  Boston,  but  was  in  Europe  most  of  the  time  till  181 7.  Was 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1825,  studied  law,  and  married  a 
daughter  of  Peter  C.  Brooks.  He  was  a  Representative  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  from.  183 1  to  1834,  and  a  Senator  from  1835  to  1837. 
He  edited  the  Writings  of  John  Adams,  ten  volumes,  and  was  for  three 
years  the  editor  of  a  daily  paper  in  Boston.  Originally  a  Whig,  he  in 
1848  became  the  candidate  of  the  Free-soil  party  for  the  Vice-Presidency 
on  the  ticket  with  Van  Buren.  From  1859  to  l86x  he  was  a  member  of 
Congress,  and  from  1861  to  1868  Minister  of  the  United  States  in  Great 
Britain.  The  relations  of  England  to  the  United  States  during  the  Civil 
War  made  this  post  a  very  trying  one,  and  Adams'  tact,  firmness  and 
success  were  extraordinary.  Few  men  performed  services  so  valuable 
to  the  Union. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  son  of  the  former,  born  in  Boston,  May 
27,  1833.  Graduate  of  Harvard  with  the  degree  LX.  D.,  admitted  to  the 
bar  1858.  Served  through  the  Civil  War,  attaining  to  rank  of  Brigadier- 
General  (brevet).  In  1884  was  made  president  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad.  Wrote  the  life  of  his  father  and  of  R.  A.  Dana,  besides  other 
important  historical  works.     See  appendix,  page  474. 

Adams,  Hannah  (1756-1832),  of  Massachusetts,  famous  as  one  of 
the  earliest  feminine  writers  in  America  ;  wrote  a  History  of  New  Eng- 
land, 1799,  and  a  History  of  the  Jews,  1812. 

Adams,  Henry  (Brooks),  born  1838,  third  son  of  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  as  assistant  professor  of  history  at  Harvard  College  (1870-1877), 
stimulated  historical  instruction  in  American  universities,  and  in  1889-* 
1891  published  a  classic  History  of  the  United  States  under  Jefferson 
and  Madison. 

Adams,  John  (1735-1826),  second  President  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  Braintree  (Quincy),  Mass.,  October  19,  1735,  the  son  of  a 
small  farmer.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1755,  then 
taught  school  and  studied  law  in  Worcester.  Taking  up  practice  in 
Boston,  he  soon  acquired  prominence  as  a  politician  and  writer,  especi- 
ally against  the  Stamp  Act  and  other  injurious  acts  of  the  British  govern- 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  21 

ment.  All  his  writings  were  spirited,  terse,  clear  and  pungent.  In 
1774  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  and  was  active  in 
its  work  and  that  of  the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts.  In  the 
Congress  of  1775  he  urged  independence,  and  was  made  chairman  of 
the  Board  of  War.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  of  five  which  drew  up 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  After  a  brief  mission  to  France  in 
1778,  he  was  again  sent  out,  in  1779,  as  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  which  was  signed  in 
1783.  He  also  negotiated  a  loan  with  the  Dutch.  In  1785  he  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  Minister  of  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain,  in  which 
capacity  he  showed  himself,  as  always,  active,  bold  and  patriotic,  but 
could  not  negotiate  a  treaty  of  commerce.  Returning  in  1788,  he  was 
in  1789  chosen  the  first  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  and  soon 
became,  in  opposition  to  Jefferson,  a  leader  of  the  Federalist  party.  In 
1797  he  became  President,  with  Jefferson  as  Vice-President,  Timothy 
Pickering  Secretary  of  State  (1800,  John  Marshall),  Oliver  Wolcott 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (1800,  Samuel  Dexter),  James  McHenry 
Secretary  of  War  (1800,  S.  Dexter),  and  Charles  Lee,  Attorney-General 
(1798,  Benjamin  Stoddert,  Secretary  of  the  Navy).  The  administra- 
tion had  many  difficulties,  arising  partly  from  the  unfriendly  course  of 
the  French  Directory  toward  the  ministers  sent  to  them  (see  Directory  ; 
Pinckney,  C.  C;  X.  Y.  Z.  Mission),  partly  from  the  Cabinet,  partly 
from  the  rivalry  of  Hamilton,  and  partly  from  the  President's  own 
warmth  of  temper,  vanity  and  hasty  indiscretion  in  speech  and  writing. 
Popular  with  the  mass  of  his  party  by  reason  of  his  integrity  and  patri- 
otism, he  alienated  the  leaders  by  concluding  an  agreement  with 
France  and  by  reconstructing  his  Cabinet.  These  dissensions,  and  the  un- 
popularity of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  (see  arts.),  gave  the  election  of 
1800  to  Jefferson  and  the  Democrats.  Adams  retired  to  private  life  in 
Quincy,  Mass.  In  retirement  he  wrote  much,  vivaciously,  often  wittily, 
sometimes  with  impulsive  bitterness,  on  public  affairs,  past  and  current. 
He  became  reconciled  with  Jefferson,  and  died  on  the  same  day  with  him, 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration,  July  4,  1826.  Lives  by  J.  T. 
Morse  and  C.  F.  Adams.     Writings  edited  by  C.  F.  A. 

Adams,  John  Quincy  (July  11,  i767-PAebruary  23,  1848),  sixth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Adams.  A 
boy  of  precocious  talents,  he  was  early  taken  abroad  by  his  father, 
studied  at  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  at  fourteen  began  his  public 
career  as  secretary  to  Francis  Dana,  Minister  to  Russia.  He  was  grad. 
uated  at  Harvard  in  1788,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1791,  and  at  once 
began  to  write  on  public  affairs.  From  1794  to  1797  he  was  Minister  to 
Holland  ;  from  1797  to  1801,  Minister  to  Prussia.      In  1803  the  Federal- 


22  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ists  elected  him  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  Approving  Jefferson's  embargo, 
he  became  estranged  from  the  Federalists,  acted  with  the  Republicans, 
and  in  1808  resigned.  In  1809  Madison  appointed  him  Minister  to 
Russia,  and  in  1814  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Ghent ;  he  then  became  Minister  to  England.  From  181 7  to 
1825  he  was  Secretary  of  State  to  President  Monroe.  In  the  election 
of  1824,  though  he  received  but  eighty-four  electoral  votes  to  ninety- 
nine  for  Jackson,  he  was,  by  a  coalition  of  his  friends  with  those  of  Clay, 
chosen  President  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  He  appointed  Clay 
Secretary  of  State  ;  Richard  Rush  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  ;  James 
Barbour  Secretary  of  Wrfr  (1828,  Peter  B.  Porter);  Samuel  L.  Southard 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  William  Wirt  Attorney-General.  Calhoun 
was  Vice-President.  A  cry  of  "  bargain  and  corruption  "  with  Clay  was 
raised,  though  without  foundation.  Adams'  administration  was  marked 
by  intelligence  and  firmness,  and  by  extreme  integrity  in  all  matters, 
especially  that  of  appointments,  but  was  made  a  stormy  one  by  the  bitter 
attacks  of  his  enemies  in  Congress  and  by  his  own  unbending  and  pug- 
nacious character.  He  favored  protection  and  internal  improvements 
at  Federal  expense.  (See  also  art.  Panama,  Congress  of.)  He  failed  of 
re-election  in  1828.  In  1831,  still  vigorous  at  sixty-four,  he  entered 
Congress  as  an  independent  member  for  the  Quincy  district  in  Massa- 
chusetts, which  he  continued  to  represent  till  his  death.  A  model 
legislator,  active  and  efficient  in  every  valuable  department  of  congres- 
sional business,  his  most  memorable  services  were  in  behalf  of  the  right 
of  petition,  threatened  by  the  pro-slavery  members,  and  in  other  assist- 
ance to  the  anti-slavery  cause.  (See  also  Broad  Seal  War. )  He  died 
at  his  post  in  the  Capitol  on  February  23,  1848.  Twelve  volumes  of  his 
diary  have  been  published,  abounding  in  information  and  acute  though 
censorious  judgments  on  the  events  of  his  long  public  career,  and  in  evi- 
dence of  his  high  character  and  patriotism.  Lives  by  W.  H.  Seward 
and  J.  T.  Morse. 

Adams,  Samuel  (1722-1S03),  orator,  patriot  and  agitator,  was  born 
in  Boston,  a  second  cousin  of  John  Adams,  and  studied  for  a  time  at  Har- 
vard College.  Unsuccessful  in  business  and  in  the  office  of  tax-collector 
for  the  town  of  Boston,  he  soon  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  Bos- 
ton town-meetings.  In  1764  he  drew  up  Boston's  early  protest  against 
Grenville's  scheme  of  taxation.  From  1765  to  1774  he  was  a  member 
for  Boston  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts,  in  which 
he  was  among  the  foremost  in  debate  and  as  a  writer  of  State  papers. 
He  was  an  adroit  politician,  prudent,  yet  zealous  and  inflexible  in  his 
love  of  liberty.  He  led  in  the  protests  against  taxation  without  repre- 
sentation, and  in  1770  secured  from  Hutchinson  the  removal  of  the  troops 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  «3 

from  the  city.  He  instituted  the  system  of  town  committees  of  corre- 
spondence. From  1774  to  1781  he  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress ;  he  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  had  an  important 
part  in  making  the  Massachusetts  Constitution  of  1780.  He  was  in  1781 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate,  and  in  1788  of  the  State  Con- 
vention which  ratified  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Opposed 
to  some  of  its  provisions,  he  finally  concluded  to  vote  for  it,  which  was 
of  much  influence  upon  others.  In  the  party  divisions  which  soon  fol- 
lowed, he  was  of  the  Democratic-Republican  party.  From  1789  to  1794 
he  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts,  from  1794  to  1797  Gov- 
ernor. Adams'  public  services,  of  the  first  importance  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  revolutionary  struggle,  became  less  valuable  when  the  tasks 
of  the  hour  were  those  of  constructive  statesmanship  and  administration, 
for  which  he  had  little  talent ;  but  perhaps  no  one  did  more  to  bring 
about  the  Revolution. 

Adelbert  College  was  founded  in  1826  at  Hudson,  O.,  under  the 
name  of  Western  Reserve  College.  In  1882  it  was  transferred  to  Cleve- 
land, taking  the  name  of  a  chief  benefactor's  son.  The  Medical  Depart- 
ment was  established  in  1842  ;  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science  in 
1 88 1.     All  are  considered  parts  of  Western  Reserve  University. 

Adet,  Pierre  Auguste  (1763-1832),  chemist  and  politician,  was 
Minister  of  the  French  Republic  (the  Directory)  to  the  United  States 
from  1795  to  1797.  Resigned  in  protest  against  actions  of  the  American 
government  which  he  regarded  as  violations  of  neutrality  in  the  war 
then  pending. 

Admiral.  This  grade  in  the  U.  S.  Navy  (as  distinguished  from 
vice-admiral  and  rear-admiral)  was  first  established  by  Act  of  Congress 
on  July  25,  1866.  There  have  been  but  two  admirals  ;  Farragut  was 
commissioned  in  1866,  Porter  on  Farragut's  death  in  1870.  On  the 
death  of  Admiral  Porter  the  grade  became  extinct  (1891).  It  was  re- 
vived for  Dewey  1899. 

Admiralty  Courts.  In  the  colonial  period  the  governor  of  each 
colony  was  vice-admiral  in  his  colony,  and  as  such  had  the  right  of  de- 
ciding maritime  cases,  though  often  a  judge  was  appointed  by  him  for 
the  purpose.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  vests  this  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  Federal  Courts.  The  District  Courts  judge  such  cases  in  the 
first  instance.     (See  Prize  Courts. ) 

Adventists,  or  Second  Adventists.  About  1833  Wm.  Miller 
began  to  lecture  on  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  predicting  that  it 
would  occur  in  1842.     Other  dates  were  subsequently  set ;  but  at  pres- 


24  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ent  the  leaders  of  the  sect  content  themselves  with  general  prophecy  of 
an  early  advent.     In  1900  the  sect  numbered  50,000  members. 

African  Company,  originating  in  an  association  formed  at  Exeter, 
England,  in  1588,  was  chartered  as  a  joint-stock  company  in  1618. 
Under  successive  charters  it  continued  in  existence  till  1821,  almost 
without  interruption.  In  the  period  before  the  Revolution  it  was  much 
engaged  in  the  slave  trade  with  the  American  colonies. 

Agassis,  I/OUis  J.  R.  (1807-1873),  was  born  in  Switzerland.  In 
1S46  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  remained  here  as  professor  of 
geology  and  zoology.  In  both  these  sciences  he  did  work  of  inesti- 
mable value  and  exerted  great  influence  upon  their  development  in 
America  b)r  his  enthusiasm,  energy  and  organizing  ability. 

Agnew,  James,  a  British  general  in  the  American  Revolution,  dis- 
tinguished at  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ger- 
mantown,  Oct.  4,   1777. 

Agrarians,  the  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  "  loco-foco  "  or  "  equal 
rights  "  party  formed  in  1835,  and  which  denounced  special  privileges. 
Later  the  Abolitionists  and  Republicans  were  branded  at  Agrarians  by 
the  pro-slavery  part)'. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  The  first  important  institution  of  this  sort 
in  the  United  States  was  the  Agricultural  College  of  the  State  of  Michi- 
gan, established  in  1857,  though  that  of  Pennsylvania  was  established 
in  1854.  The  Morrill  Act  of  1862  gave  each  State  30,000  acres  of  gov- 
ernment land  or  its  equivalent,  multiplied  b}'  the  number  of  the  State's 
senators  and  representatives,  to  found  a  college  of  the  agricultural  and 
mechanical  arts.  More  than  forty  institutions  of  this  sort  have  resulted. 
In  1890  the  Federal  subvention  was  increased. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.  The  first  government  station 
of  this  sort  was  established  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1875.  Professor 
W.  O.  Atwater's  success  in  conducting  this  station  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  others  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Nearly  every  State 
has  one  or  more.  In  1892  there  were  fifty-three  fully  equipped  experi- 
mental stations,  employing  in  all  about  400  trained  specialists  in  con- 
ducting scientific  investigations. 

Agricultural  Societies.  The  first  in  the  Uuited  States,  the  South 
Carolina  Agricultural  Society,  was  founded  in  1784,  the  Philadelphia 
Agricultural  Society  in  1785,  that  of  New  York  in  1791,  that  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1792.  The  first  quasi-national  society  of  this  sort,  the 
Columbian  Agricultural  Society,  originated  in  a  convention  held  in 
Washington  in  1809. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  25 

Agriculture,  Department  of,  an  executive  department  of  the 
Federal  government,  the  head  of  which,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  is 
a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  The  department  was  founded  by  Act  of  May 
15,  1862.  It  was  given  equality  with  the  other  chief  executive  depart- 
ments by  the  Act  of  February  11,  1889,  and  its  head  became  in  1889  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet.  The  weather  bureau  was  transferred  to  it  from 
the  Department  of  War  in  1891. 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio  Y.  Pamy,  born  in  the  Province  of  Cavite\  near; 
Manila,  about  1870.  His  father  it  is  said  was  a  Spanish  officer  and  his' 
mother  a  Tagalo  Chinese.  He  was  for  a  while  house-boy  in  the  home 
of  a  Jesuit  priest,  who  was  so  attracted  by  the  extreme  brightness  of  the 
boy  that  he  gave  him  many  educational  advantages.  At  fifteen  Aguinaldo 
entered  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of  Manila,  where  he 
joined  the  Masonic  Order,  which  was,  under  Spanish  laws,  interdicted, 
and  he  fled  to  Hong  Kong.  It  was  while  in  Hong  Kong  Aguinaldo 
organized  a  revolution  against  Spanish  rule  in  the  Philippines,  but 
before  doing  so  he  prepared  himself  for  military  life  by  serving  a  while 
in  the  Chinese  army  and  studying  English  army  tactics.  He  also 
studied  the  modern  languages,  which  he  acquired  with  amazing  ease, 
and  it  is  said  he  can  converse  in  ten  different  tongues.  In  1893  ne  aP~ 
peared  in  the  Philippines,  and  by  his  eloquence  and  force  of  character 
induced  a  large  following  to  take  up  arms.  The  insurrection  was  prose- 
cuted with  so  much  success  that  Spain  conciliated  the  insurgents  by 
promising  a  cash  payment  of  $1,000,000,  giving  amnesty  to  all  engaged 
in  the  rebellion,  and  conceding  all  the  reforms  demanded.  These 
pledges  were  only  partially  fulfilled,  and  in  1897  Aguinaldo  again  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt  and  conducted  the  new  insurrection  so  resolutely^ 
that  when  war  between  Spain  and  America  was  declared  the  Filipinos; 
had  possession  of  a  greater  part  of  the  islands  and  invested  Manila. 
When  peace  was  declared  between  Spain  and  America  Aguinaldo  as- 
sumed dictatorship  of  the  Philippines  and  demanded  recognition  of  his 
government  and  independence  of  the  islands.  This  the  United  States 
refused  to  grant  and  war  was  precipitated  February,  1899,  which  con- 
tinued with  spirit  for  a  year.  Sixty-five  thousand  American  troops  and 
thirty  war  vessels  were  sent  to  subjugate  the  Filipinos,  which  was  so 
far  successful  by  the  beginning  of  1900  that  Aguinaldo  was  a  fugitive 
vid  his  army  reduced  to  a  few  guerrillas. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  or  Aachen,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  is  of  impor- 
tance in  American  history  because  of  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  con- 
rluded  in  1748,  which  ended  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (King 
George's  War) .     The  treaty  restored    I,ouisbourg  and  Cape  Breton  to 


26  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY, 

the  French,  which  gave  great  offense  to  the  New  Englanders  who  had 
conquered  these  possessions. 

Akerman,  Amos  T.,  born  in  1823,  was  District  Attorney  for  Georgia 
from  1866  to  1870.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  in 
Grant's  Cabinet  from  1870  to  1872. 

Alabama,  a  Southern  State  ;  the  ninth  State  admitted  after  the 
original  thirteen.  The  region  occupied  by  the  State  was  originally  part 
of  the  territory  of  Georgia,  though  the  southern  portion  was  the  subject 
of  dispute  with  Spain,  and  indeed  with  the  Federal  government.  In 
1802  Georgia  ceded  all  her  western  lands  to  the  latter,  and  what  is  now 
Alabama  became  a  part  of  the  territory  of  Mississippi,  organized  in  1798 
(1804).  The  portion  south  of  lat.  310  and  west  of  the  River  Perdido  was 
acquired  by  seizure  during  the  war  of  1812.  During  1813  and  1814  oc- 
curred the  war  with  the  Creeks,  whose  defeat  by  General  Jackson  at 
Horse  Shoe  Bend  caused  them  to  concede  nearly  all  their  territory. 
Rapid  settlement  followed.  In  1817  Mississippi  became  a  State,  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  territory  being  erected  into  the  territory  of  Ala- 
bama. The  name  is  Indian,  and  is  said  to  mean  "  Here  we  rest."  The 
population  of  the  new  territory,  from  but  33,000  in  1817,  grew  to  be 
128,000  in  1820.  On  December  14,  1819,  it  was  admitted  as  the  State  of 
Alabama.  Of  the  population  mentioned,  86,000  were  whites  and  42,000 
slaves.  Population,  continuing  to  grow  rapidly,  reached  nearly  a 
million  in  i860,  and  in  1890  was  1,513,000.  On  January  it,  1861,  Alabama 
seceded  from  the  Union.  The  act  of  secession  was  revoked  in  1865. 
1867-68  the  State  was  under  military  rule.  In  1868,  under  a  new  con- 
stitution, Alabama  was  declared  by  Congress  to  be  restored  to  the  Union. 

"Alabama,"  Confederate  cruiser,  was  built  by  an  English  firm  at 
Liverpool  expressly  for  the  Confederacy,  and,  against  the  urgent  re- 
monstrances of  the  American  Minister,  was  permitted  by  the  British 
government  to  escape  (July  29,  1862).  At  Terceira  she  received  from 
other  English  vessels  her  armament  and  crew,  and  set  out,  under  Cap- 
tain Raphael  Semmes,  to  destroy  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
( August  29) .  By  the  end  of  October  she  had  made  twenty-seven  prizes. 
After  a  long  cruise  in  the  waters  of  the  West  Indies,  Brazil  and  the  East 
Indies,  the  ' '  Alabama  ' '  came  to  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  France.  Off 
this  harbor,  after  a  memorable  fight,  she  was  sunk  by  the  U.  S.  steam- 
ship "  Kearsarge,"  June  19,  1864,  after  having  destroyed  sixty-five 
vessels  and  $10,000,000  worth  of  property. 

"Alabama"  Claims,  claims  of  the  United  States  Government 
against  that  of  Great  Britain,  growing  out  of  the  depredations  of  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  27 

cruiser  "  Alabama  "  and  other  similar  cruisers.  May  13,  1861,  the  Queen 
had  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality  in  the  American  Civil  War,  forbid- 
ding her  subjects  to  take  part  with  either  combatant,  and  granting  bellig- 
erent rights  to  both.  Great  Britain's  Foreign  Enlistment  Act  of  1819 
also  forbids  the  equipment  of  any  land  or  naval  forces  within  British  do- 
minions to  operate  against  any  friendly  nation.  Nevertheless,  the  ' '  Flor- 
ida,""  Alabama, "  "  Georgia,"  "  Shenandoah,"  and  other  vessels  built 
in  Great  Britain,  were  allowed  to  escape,  and  as  Confederate  cruisers  in- 
flicted enormous  damage  on  American  commerce,  nearly  driving  it  from 
the  seas.  C.  F.  Adams,  Minister  to  Great  Britain,  protested  vigorously. 
After  the  war  the  United  States  Government  urgently  pressed  a  claim 
for  compensation.  On  January  12,  1866,  it  offered  to  submit  the  whole 
controversy  to  arbitration.  Great  Britain  proposed  limitations  unac- 
ceptable to  the  United  States.  A  treaty  negotiated  by  Reverdy  John- 
son providing  for  arbitration  was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  Finally  a 
Joint  High  Commission,  meeting  at  Washington  in  1871,  agreed  upon 
the  Treaty  of  Washington,  which  provided  for  arbitration  of  the  Ala- 
bama Claims  and  several  other  disputed  matters  by  a  board  of  five  arbi- 
trators, appointed  respectively  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
the  Queen  of  England,  the  King  of  Italy,  the  President  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  Those  appointed  were,  in  the  above  order, 
Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Sir  Alexander  Cockburn,  Lord  Chief  Jus- 
tice, Count  Federigo  Sclopis,  M.  Jacques  Staempfli,  and  Viscount 
Itajuba ;  Count  Sclopis  presided.  The  tribunal  met  at  Geneva  on 
December  15,  1871.  It  rejected  the  American  claims  for  indirect  dam- 
ages, but  decided  that  the  government  of  Great  Britain  had  been  culpable 
in  not  doing  more  to  prevent  the  sailing  and  success  of  the  cruisers, 
and  awarded  to  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,000  as  damages. 

Alamance,  or  Great  Alamance,  a  creek  in  North  Carolina,  tribu- 
tary to  the  River  Haw.  Here,  in  1771,  Governor  Try  on,  with  1,000 
militia,  defeated  3,000  "  regulators,"  or  rebels  against  the  royal  govern- 
ment, killing  some  200.  Out  of  a  large  number  taken  prisoners  six 
were  executed  for  high  treason,  and  the  insurrection  was  suppressed. 

Alamo,  a  fort  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  memorable  for  a  siege  and 
massacre  in  1836,  during  the  war  of  Texan  independence  from  Mexico. 
Santa  Anna,  with  from  1,500  to  2,000  Mexicans,  besieged  140  Texans  in 
the  fort  for  two  weeks.  Finally,  March  6,  the  fort,  desperately  de- 
fended, was  taken  by  assault,  only  six  of  the  defenders  remaining 
alive.  These  six  were  at  once  butchered  by  order  of  Santa  Anna, 
among  them  Colonel  David  Crockett,  Lieut. -Colonel  W.  Barrett  Travis 
and  Colonel  James  Bowie. 


28  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Alaska,  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  formerly  constituting 
Russian  America.  In  1741  Vitus  Bering,  sailing  for  the  Russians, 
discovered  the  range  of  Mt.  St.  Klias.  In  1783  the  Russians  established 
a  trading-post  on  the  island  of  Kadiak.  In  1799,  ty  consolidation  of 
existing  companies,  the  Russian-American  Fur  Company  was  organized, 
and  from  this  time  to  1862  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  trade  in  Alaska  and 
the  rule  of  the  country.  By  treaty  of  March  30,  1867,  the  United 
States  bought  Alaska  (area  580,000  square  miles)  from  Russia,  paying 
$7,200,000.  In  1884  Alaska  was  organized  as  a  district,  with  executive 
officers  appointed  by  the  President,  but  without  representative  insti- 
tutions. The  population  of  Alaska  in  1890  was  less  than  30,000,  chiefly 
Indians,  but  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1893  on  Birch  Creek  was  followed 
by  a  rapid  influx  of  miners,  and  in  the  beginning  of  1900  the  population 
was  estimated  to  exceed  300,000.  Circle  City  was  the  first  place  to  re- 
ceive the  benefits  of  the  gold  discoveries,  and  held  its  pre-eminence 
until  1896,  when  gold  nuggets  were  found  by  George  Crawford  on  the 
banks  of  Klondike  River,  which  led  to  the  founding  of  Dawson  City. 
Other  rich  discoveries  followed  in  the  Upper  Yukon  basin  (in  British 
territory)  in  the  Copper  River  district,  and  Cape  Nome.  The  rush  of 
miners  was  so  great  that  railroads  were  built  in  1899  leading  to  the 
richest  districts,  and  several  lines  of  steamboats  were  established  on 
the  Yukon  that  make  the  trip  now  an  easy  one.  The  gold  output  of 
Alaska,  for  1900,  is  estimated  at  $30,000,000. 

Albany,  capital  of  New  York.  In  1614  a  trading-post  was  estab- 
lished here  by  the  Dutch,  and  called  Fort  Nassau,  later  Fort  Orange, 
or  New  Orange.  When  the  English  took  New  Netherland,  in  1664, 
they  changed  the  name  to  Albany,  in  honor  of  James,  Duke  of  York 
and  Albany,  the  proprietor  of  the  province.  Albany  was  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1686,  was  the  meeting  place  of  the  first  colonial  convention 
in  1754,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in  1797. 

Albany  Convention,  1754.  At  the  instance  of  the  Lords  of  Trade, 
commissioners  from  the  colonies  of  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
met  at  Albany  on  June  19,  1754,  to  arrange  a  treaty  with  the  Six 
Nations.  They  also  proceeded  to  consider  a  plan  of  colonial  union 
proposed  by  Franklin,  a  member,  and  adopted  it.  It  provided  for  a 
president-general  of  all  the  colonies,  with  veto  power,  and  a  grand 
council,  to  consist  of  from  two  to  seven  members  from  each  colon}, 
chosen  by  the  assemblies  to  serve  three  years.  These  should  have 
power  to  control  Indian  affairs,  to  raise  and  equip  forces  for  colonial 
defense,  and  to  lay  taxes  therefor.     The  crown  rejected  the  plan  be- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  39 

cause  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the  colonies,  the  colonies  because  it 
gave  too  much  power  to  the  crown  ;  but  it  was  among  the  beginnings 
of  national  union. 

Albemarle,  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  what  is  now  North 
Carolina,  was  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Chowan  and  the  Roanoke  by 
Roger  Greene,  in  1653,  at  tlle  nead  °*  a  sma11  b°dy  °f  Dissenters  from 
Virginia. 

"Albemarle,"  a  Confederate  ironclad  ram,  which,  in  April  and 
May,  1864,  destroyed  or  disabled  several  of  the  Federal  gunboats  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Roanoke  River,  and  captured  Plymouth,  N.  C,  with  1,600 
Federal  prisoners.  On  the  night  of  October  27,  Lieutenant  Cushing, 
U.  S.  N.,  a  youth  of  twenty-one,  in  command  of  a  torpedo  launch,  get- 
ling  within  twenty  yards  of  the  "Albemarle"  before  he  was  dis- 
covered, blew  her  up  with  a  torpedo  and  made  a  miraculous  escape. 

Albuquerque,  New  Mexico,  an  engagement  in  the  Civil  War, 
April  8,  1862,  the  Federal  Colonel  Canby  attacking  Albuquerque  as  a 
part  of  the  operations  by  which  he  defeated  General  Sibley's  attempt  to 
conquer  New  Mexico  for  the  Confederacy. 

Alcalde,  the  principal  official  in  the  local  government  of  the  earlier 
towns  of  California.  The  office  was  borrowed  from  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments, and  was  first  introduced  in  the  mining  camps,  where  the  miners 
made  laws  and  elected  officers  to  enforce  them. 

Alden,  John  (1599-1687),  the  hero  of  Longfellow's  "  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish,"  accompanied  the  Pilgrims  from  Southampton  as  a 
cooper.  The. youngest  of  the  Pilgrims,  he  afterward  became  a  magistrate 
of  the  colony,  and  was  such  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

Aldie,  Va.,  scene  of  a  fierce  cavalry  fight  in  the  Civil  War,  June  17, 
1863,  Stuart's  Confederate  cavalry  vainly  assailing  a  part  of  Pleasonton's 
forces,  during  the  great  Confederate  invasion  of  the  North. 

Aldrich,  Nelson  W.,  Senator,  born  1841,  a  business  man,  represent- 
ative from  Rhode  Island  from  1879  to  1881,  was  Senator  from  that 
State  from  1881  to  the  present  time  (1900).  Senator  Aldrich  has  had 
an  important  part  in  all  recent  financial  legislation,  and  is  an  important 
authority  or  all  matters  of  the  tariff. 

Alexander,  son  of  Massasoit,  King  of  the  Pokanokets,  chief  after 
his  father's  death  in  1660,  died  in  1662  at  Plymouth.  King  Philip  was 
his  brother. 

Alexander,  Sir  William,  called  Lord  Stirling  (1726-1783),  was 


3o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

born  in  New  York  City.  In  1757  he  laid  claim  before  the  House  of 
Lords  to  the  earldom  of  Stirling,  but  in  vain.  He  became  Surveyor- 
General  of  New  York.  In  1775  he  became  a  colonel  in  the  Revolutionary 
army,  a  brigadier-general  in  1776,  and  a  major-general  in  1777.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Trenton,  Brandywine,  Germantowu  and  Mon- 
mouth. 

Alexandria,  Va.,  was  founded  in  1749.  When  the  District  of 
Columbia  was  formed,  Virginia's  cession  included  this  town.  In  1814 
it  was  captured  and  plundered  by  the  British.  In  1846  it  was  retroceded 
to  Virginia.  It  was  entered  by  the  Union  troops  in  1861  under  Colonel 
Ellsworth,  who  was  shot  while  hauling  down  the  Confederate  flag.  It 
subsequently  became  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Virginia  counties 
which  adhered  to  the  Union. 

Alexandria  Conference.  On  March  20,  1785,  two  commissioners 
from  Virginia,  George  Mason  and  Alexander  Henderson,  met  three  from 
Maryland,  Daniel  Jenifer,  Thomas  Stone  and  Samuel  Chase,  at  Alex- 
andria, commissioned  to  treat  concerning  the  jurisdiction  over  the 
waters  between  the  two.  After  four  days  they  adjourned  to  Mount 
Vernon  at  Washington's  request,  and  separated  on  the  twenty-eighth. 
They  discussed  commercial  regulations,  etc.,  and  their  report  to  the 
Virginia  Legislature  caused  the  summons  of  the  Annapolis  Convention 
of  1786  and,  indirectly,  that  of  the  Philadelphia  Convention  of  1787. 

Alexandria  Government.  After  the  secession  of  Virginia,  April 
17,  1861,  the  Union  members  of  her  Legislature,  mostly  from  the  western 
part  of  the  State,  met  at  Wheeling  and  organized  a  State  government, 
which  was  recognized  by  Congress  as  the  government  of  Virginia. 
Francis  H.  Pierpont  was  Governor.  After  the  admission  of  West  Virginia 
this  Virginia  government  was  transferred  to  Alexandria.  President 
Johnson  recognized  it  as  the  lawful  government  of  Virginia.  It  con- 
tinued in  operation  until  1867. 

Alger,  Russell  A.,  born  1836  in  Ohio.  He  was  a  general  in  the 
Union  Army,  rising  from  the  ranks.  Governor  of  Michigan  1884. 
Commander-in-chief  of  G.  A.  R.  in  1889.  Became  Secretary  of  War 
March  5,  1897  ;  resigned  because  of  popular  dissatisfaction,  July  19, 
1899. 

Algerine  War.  Following  the  example  of  other  Christian  powers, 
in  their  dealings  with  the  piratical  governments  of  Northern  Africa,  the 
United  States  Government  had,  in  1795,  signed  a  treaty  with  the  Dey  of 
Algiers,  paying  him  a  million  dollars  for  the  ransom  of  American  cap- 
tives and  promising  an  annual  payment  of  tribute.     In  181 2  the  Dey 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  31 

declared  war  against  the  United  States.  When  the  war  of  18 12  with 
England  was  ended,  Congress  declared  war  on  Algiers,  and  Commodore 
Decatur,  with  ten  vessels,  sailed  against  her.  Such  successes  were 
obtained  over  the  Algerine  navy  that  by  the  time  Decatur  reached 
Algiers  the  Dey  was  ready  to  submit.  He  signed  a  treaty  giving 
indemnity,  renouncing  all  claim  to  tributes  or  presents,  and  promising 
not  to  reduce  prisoners  of  war  to  slavery.  Decatur  then  exacted  similar 
submission  from  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 

Algiers.  The  treaty  of  1795  with  Algiers  secured  commercial  privi- 
leges to  the  United  States  on  the  payment  of  tribute.  By  the  treaty  of 
September  5,  1S15,  the  United  States  secured  from  the  Dey  of  Algiers 
exemption  from  tribute  and  release  of  captives  from  slavery,  and  indem- 
nification for  violation  of  the  former  treaty. 

AlgfOtiquitiS,  a  family  of  Indian  tribes,  bearing  a  strong  resemblance 
to  each  other  in  manners  and  customs  and  language,  which  at  the  time 
of  the  beginning  of  English  colonization  numbered  about  a  quarter  of  a 
million,  and  occupied,  beside  part  of  Canada,  most  of  the  area  now  in 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  latitude  370.  They 
were  in  the  hunting-and-fishing  stage,  tilling  little  ground,  and  nomadic. 
The  chief  tribes  in  the  family,  beside  the  Canadian  members,  were  the 
Abenakis,  Massachusetts  tribes,  Pequods,  Narragansetts,  Mohegans, 
Delawares,  Nanticokes,  Powhatan  tribes,  Pampticoes,  Shawnees,  west  of 
the  Alleghanies  the  Chippewas,  Pottawatomies,  Miamis,  Sacs,  Foxes, 
Kickapoos  and,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Blackfeet  and  Cheyennes. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  two  acts  of  Congress,  passed  by  the 
Federalists  in  1798,  under  the  excitement  of  hostile  relations  with  France 
and  bitter  feeling  against  the  influence  of  the  French  Revolution.  The 
Alien  Act  authorized  the  President  to  order  out  of  the  country  all  such 
aliens  as  he  might  judge  to  be  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the 
United  States  or  to  be  plotting  against  them.  The  Sedition  Act  pro- 
vided heavy  fines  and  imprisonment  for  any  who  should  conspire  to  op- 
pose the  United  States  Government  or  laws,  or  who  should  print  or 
publish  any  false,  scandalous  or  malicious  writings  against  the  govern- 
ment, Congress  or  the  President,  intended  to  bring  disrepute  or  hatred 
upon  them  or  stir  up  sedition.  These  laws  were  regarded  by  the  Re- 
publican party  as  unconstitutional,  and  subversive  of  the  liberty  of  the 
press  and  of  speech,  and  were  denounced  in  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia 
Resolutions.     They  expired  in  1800  and  1801  respectively. 

Allatoona,  Ga.  During  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea  the  Confeder- 
ates on  October  5,  1864,   attacked  Allatoona,  where   General  Corse  re- 


32  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

pulsed  them  after  an  heroic  and  desperate  defense,  losing  one-third  of 
his  garrison. 
Allen,  Chas.  Herbert,  see  appendix,  page  474- 

Allen,  Ethan  (1737-1789),  born  in  Connecticut,  removed  in  early 
life  to  Vermont,  and  was  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  its  most  conspic- 
uous citizen.  He  had  an  active  part  in  the  resistance  of  the  "  Green 
Mountain  Boys  "  to  the  New  York  government.  May  10,  1775,  with  a 
small  force  he  captured  Ticonderoga  from  the  British.  Crown  Point 
and  Skenesborough  were  also  taken.  For  three  years  ensuing  Allen  was 
a  captive  with  the  British. 

Allen,  William  Henry  (1784-1813),  was  first  lieutenant  of  the 
"United  States  "  under  Decatur  when  she  captured  the  "  Macedonian  " 
in  1812.  As  commander  of  the  "Argus"  he  distinguished  himself  by 
taking  many  prizes,  but  was  killed  in  the  fight  with  the  "  Pelican." 

Allen's  Farm,  one  of  the  actions  in  the  "  Seven  Days,"  June  29, 
1S62.  The  Federal  General  Sumner,  having  bivouacked  at  Allen's 
Farm  on  his  retreat  from  Fair  Oaks,  was  attacked  here  for  two  hours  by 
the  Confederate  General  Magruder. 

Alliance.  The  only  important  alliance  made  by  the  United  States 
was  that  with  France,  made  by  the  treaty  of  February  6,  1778.  Since 
1776  France  had  privately  aided  the  Revolution  with  arms  and  supplies. 
The  two  treaties  of  1778  provided  for  a  defensive  alliance  in  case  Great 
Britain  should  declare  war  on  France,  and  declared  that  no  peace  should 
be  made  until  the  independence  of  the  United  States  was  recognized, 
and  then  only  by  mutual  consent.  Each  party  guaranteed  the  other's 
possessions  in  America,  and  the  United  States  granted  to  France,  when 
France  was  at  war,  more  favorable  treatment  than  should  be  accorded 
to  the  other  belligerent.  These  concessions  were  subsequently  trouble- 
some to  the  United  States  in  1793.     (See  art.  France.) 

"  Alliance,"  United  States  vessel,  took  part  in  the  cruise  of  John 
Paul  Jones  and  the  "  Bonhomme  Richard,"  and  was  one  of  the  two 
ships  remaining  in  the  Continental  service  when  the  Revolutionary  war 
ended. 

Alliance,  Holy,  the  name  given  to  an  alliance  of  the  absolute  sov- 
ereigns of  the  Continent,  concluded  in  1815  at  the  instance  of  Czar 
Alexander  I.  Its  object  was  the  government  of  Europe  by  mutual  con- 
cert based  on  the  profession  of  Christian  brotherhood.  It  ultimately 
tended  toward  the  repression  of  all  liberal  and  revolutionary  opposition 
to  the  existing  political  order.  In  1823  the  King  of  Spain  invoked  the 
aid  of  the  other  powers  in  suppressing  the  revolt  of  his  South  American 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  33 

colonies.  President  Monroe's  enunciation  of  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine," 
in  his  Message  of  December,  1823,  was  a  reply  to  this  threatened  move- 
ment. 

Allison,  William  B.,  Senator,  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1829.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Chicago  Convention  of  i860,  a  Congressman  from 
Iowa  from  1862  to  1871,  and  a  Senator  from  1873  to  the  present  time 
(1900).  He  has  several  times  been  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  Re- 
publican nomination  for  President,  and  is  a  high  authority  on  all  mat- 
ters of  national  finance. 

Almanacs.  The  first  published  in  this  country  appeared  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  in  1639.  It  was  compiled  by  William  Pierce,  mariner, 
and  printed  by  Stephen  Daye,  and  was  called  An  Almanac,  Calculated 
for  New  England.  It  was  the  first  book  printed  in  the  colonies.  The 
first  Boston  almanac  was  published  by  John  Foster  in  1676.  In  Phila- 
delphia the  first  appeared  in  1686,  edited  by  Daniel  Leeds,  and  printed 
by  William  Bradford.  In  1697,  J.  Clapp  published  an  almanac  in  New 
York.  Beginning  with  1700,  Samuel  Clough  published  the  New  Eng- 
land Almanac  at  Boston  for  eight  years.  It  bore  the  traditional 
Avoodcut,  professing  to  show  wrhat  parts  of  a  man's  body  are  governed 
by  the  moon,  etc.;  it  foretold  the  weather,  eclipses  of  the  year,  etc. 
Nathaniel  Ames' Astronomical  Diary  and  Almanac  started  at  Boston 
in  1725,  and  continued  half  a  century,  with  a  circulation  of  60,000. 

Altamont,  Tenn.  On  August  30,  1862,  when  Bragg  was  about  in- 
vading Kentucky,  the  outposts  of  General  McCook's  division  were 
attacked  at  Altamont  by  the  Confederate  General  Wheeler,  who  de- 
feated and  forced  McCook  to  retire. 

Alton,  111.  In  1836  Elijah  P.  Lovejo)',  an  Abolitionist  clergyman, 
began  to  publish  an  anti-slavery  paper  here.  His  press  was  twice  des- 
troyed by  a  pro-slavery  mob.  While  defending  his  premises  against  a 
third  attack  in  November,  1837,  he  was  shot  and  mortally  wounded. 
A  monument  has  been  erected  in  Alton  to  his  memory. 

Amana,  a  communistic  society  owning  25,000  acres  of  land  seventy- 
four  miles  west  of  Davenport,  la.  The  society  was  founded  by  some 
German  emigrants,  who  settled  near  Buffalo  in  1842.  In  1855  they 
moved  to  their  present  home.  The  present  society,  numbering  about 
1,500,  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  Germans,  with  a  few  Swiss  and 
Pennsylvania  Dutch.  The  base  of  its  organization  is  religion  :  they 
are  pietists  and  their  religious  head  is  supposed  to  receive  inspiration 
directly  from  God,  hence  they  call  themselves  "  Inspirationists. "  The 
ttame  Amana  is  taken  from  the  Song  of  Solomon,  iv.  8. 
Vol.  V.—3 


34  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Ambassador.  Though  the  term  ambassador  was  used  occasionally 
in  respect  to  the  first  diplomatic  appointments  made  by  the  Continental 
Congress,  from  that  time  on,  in  accordance  with  the  usual  practice  of 
republics,  the  United  States  have  appointed  no  diplomatic  representa- 
tive of  higher  rank  than  envoys.  In  1893,  however,  the  higher  grade 
vwas  authorized  by  act  of  Congress,  and  Thomas  F.  Bayard  was  made 
Ambassador  to  Great  Britain.  Ambassadors  were  also  appointed  tor 
France,  Germany,  Italy  and  Russia. 

Ambrister,  a  native  of  New  Providence  and  an  ex-lieutenant  of 
British  marines,  who,  together  with  Arbuthnot,  a  Scotch  trader,  was 
captured  by  Andrew  Jackson,  April  17,  18 18,  during  his  campaign 
against  the  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida.  These  men  were  in  league 
vith  the  Indians  in  their  raids  against  the  States.  They  were  both 
iried  before  an  American  court-martial,  Ambrister  pleading  guilty  and 
begging  mercy.  Ambrister  was  shot  and  Arbuthnot  hanged,  though 
they  were  British  citizens. 

Amelia  Island,  Ga.,  was  colonized  by  settlers  under  General 
Oglethorpe  in  1736.  In  1739  a  party  of  Spaniards  landed  on  the  island 
and  killed  two  unarmed  Highlanders.  This  was  the  first  blood  shed  in 
the  Spanish  war.  After  the  prohibition  of  the  slave  trade  in  1808  the 
island  was  a  place  of  resort  for  pirates,  smugglers  and  slave-traders, 
until  in  18 17  President  Monroe  suppressed  them. 

Amendments.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  defects  of  the  Articles  oi 
Confederation  that  they  provided  no  means  for  their  amendment  save 
by  unanimous  consent  of  the  thirteen  States.  Three  proposals  of 
amendment,  which  would  have  usefully  strengthened  the  articles,  failed 
of  obtaining  this  unanimous  consent.  The  Convention  of  1787,  sum- 
moned to  amend  the  articles,  made  a  new  constitution  instead.  Thi« 
provided  for  amendment  on  proposal  by  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  of 
Congress  or  by  a  convention,  if  ratification  were  secured  from  three 
fourths  of  the  States,  through  legislatures  or  conventions.  In  fact,  all 
have  come  from  Congress  and  been  ratified  by  State  legislatures.  Ir 
1788  several  States,  beginning  with  Massachusetts,  suggested  amend- 
ments when  ratifying  the  Constitution.  Hence  came,  in  the  first 
Congress,  the  proposals  which  brought  into  existence  the  first  ten 
amendments.  Of  many  proposed,  only  fifteen  amendments  have  been 
ratified  since  the  adoption  cf  the  Constitution.  The  first  ten  were 
ratified  December  15,  179T.  They  relate  respectively  to  I,  freedom  of 
religion,  speech  and  the  press  ;  2,  the  right  to  establish  State  militia  ; 
3,  the  quartering  of  troops  in  private  houses  ;  4,  the  security  of  persons 
against  unwarrantable  searches  and  seizures  ;  5,  capital  crime  ;  6,  crinv 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  35 

inal  prosecutions  ;  7,  trial  by  jury  in  common-law  cases  ;  8,  bails,  fines 
and  punishments  ;  9,  the  relation  of  constitutional  and  natural  rights  ; 
10,  powers  reserved  to  the  States.  The  series  is  thus  of  the  nature  of  a 
bill  of  rights.  The  Eleventh  Amendment  was  ratified  January  8,  1798. 
Under  its  provisions  no  citizen  or  citizens  of  a  State  of  the  Union,  or  of 
a  foreign  State,  can  prosecute  a  suit  against  any  other  State  of  the 
Union  in  a  Federal  court.  This  relieves  the  dignity  of  the  State,  but 
weakens  the  power  of  justice  toward  a  citizen,  and  facilitates  repudia- 
tion by  States.  The  Twelfth  Amendment  was  ratified  September  25, 
1804,  and  settled  a  new  method  of  electing  the  president  and  vice- 
president.  Under  its  provisions,  electors,  chosen  by  the  people,  meet 
in  their  respective  States  and  vote  for  the  two  highest  officers  by  dis- 
tinct ballots.  If  no  candidate  obtains  a  majority  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives elects  a  president  by  ballot  from  among  the  candidates. 
The  Thirteenth  Amendment  was  ratified  by  December  18,  1865.  It 
provided  that  slavery  should  not  exist  within  the  United  States,  and 
that  Congress  should  make  legislative  appropriation  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  article.  This  amendment  was  ratified  by  nineteen  loyal 
States  and  eight  of  those  engaged  in  the  Rebellion.  The  Fourteenth 
Amendment  was  ratified  July  21,  1868.  It  forbade  the  States  to  abridge 
the  privileges  of  citizens  of  the  Union,  diminished  representation  in 
Ease  the  suffrage  was  thus  restricted,  closed  offices  to  all  persons  who 
had  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion,  and  acknowledged  the  public 
debt.  The  Fifteenth  Amendment  was  ratified  March  30,  1870.  It 
affirms  that  "  the  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not 
be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account 
*>f  race,  color  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 

America,  so  called  after  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  claimed  to  have 
first  discovered  and  explored  the  coast  of  the  mainland  in  1497-9S. 
The  name  probably  originated  from  a  little  publication  entitled  Cosmo- 
graphicc  Introduction  edited  and  issued  by  two  scholars,  Ringmann 
and  Waldseemiiller,  at  the  little  college  of  St.  Die  in  the  Vosges 
country.  Ringmann  is  said  to  have  been  an  ardent  admirer  of  Vespu- 
cius,  and  to  have  inserted  in  his  publication  the  four  voyages  of 
Vespucius.  Tross,  a  bookseller  of  Paris,  produced  in  1881  a  map  dating 
as  far  back  as  15 17,  on  which  the  name  "  America  "  appears.  It  is  also 
found  on  Schoner's  globe  of  15 15,  and  seems  to  have  been  generally 
adopted  from  these. 

American  Antiquarian  Society,  founded  by  Isaiah  Thomas  a* 
Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1812  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  antiquities 
of  the  New  World  as  a  separate  department  of  history.     It  has  published 


36  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

several  volumes  of  collections  and  of  proceedings,  including  the  ' '  Ar- 
chaeologia  Americana." 

American  Archives,  a  valuable  collection  of  documentary  materials 
respecting  the  events  leading  up  to  the  Revolution.  This  publication 
was  begun  by  Peter  Force  at  Washington  in  1833-34,  under  instructions 
from  the  government.  It  contains  letters,  debates,  notices  of  public 
affairs  and  essays  on  constitutional  government,  the  whole  forming  a 
complete  documentary  history  of  the  colonies.  The  publication  had 
included  only  nine  volumes  when  appropriations  ceased.  Congress  has 
never  since  continued  this  invaluable  repertory. 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  the 

most  important  among  American  scientific  societies.  Its  organization 
was  effected  at  Boston  in  1847.  Meetings  have  been  held  each  year  in 
some  American  city. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  the 

oldest  missionary  society  in  the  United  States,  organized  June  29,  1810. 
It  is  an  incorporated  body  with  250  members,  and  supports  over  500 
missionaries  and  many  schools  in  Europe,  America,  Asia,  Africa  and 
the  Pacific  Islands. 

American  Historical  Association,  founded  at  Saratoga  in  1884, 
was  incorporated  by  Congress  in  1889.  It  is  now  affiliated  with  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  and  its  papers  are  published  by  government. 
Its  meetings  have  mostly  been  held  in  Washington.  It  numbers  (1899) 
about  1,100  members. 

American  Historical  Society,  founded  in  Washington  in  1836. 
Its  meetings  were  held  in  the  House  of  Representatives  at  the  Capitol, 
and  the  first  president  was  John  Quincy  Adams.  It  published  one 
volume  of  transactions. 

American  Institute,  a  New  York  institution  founded  in  1828  to 
promote  domestic  industry.  A  charter  was  granted  by  the  State  Legis- 
lature. Annual  exhibitions  showing  the  progress  of  industr}-,  invention 
and  manufacture  have  been  held. 

American  Insurance  Company  vs.  Canter,  an  important  case 
in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  decided  in  1828.  An  insured  cargo  of 
cotton,  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Florida,  was,  by  a  decree  of  a  territorial 
court,  sold  to  satisfy  the  claim  for  salvage.  The  owners  abandoned  the 
cargo  to  the  underwriters.  Canter,  having  bought  portions  of  the  cargo, 
sold  the  same  at  auction  in  Charleston.  The  insurance  companjr  brought 
suit  for  recovery,  alleging  unconstitutionality  and  want  of  authority  in 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  37 

the  Territorial  Court  of  Florida.  The  district  judge  pronounced  the 
decree  of  the  Florida  court  a  nullity.  The  Circuit  Court,  however,  con- 
firmed the  decree  of  the  Territorial  Court  and  maintained  Canter's 
claims.  This  judgment  was  also  confirmed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  on  the  ground  that  the  act  of  the  Territorial  legisla- 
ture of  Florida,  in  erecting  the  Territorial  Court,  was  not  inconsistent 
with  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  was  therefore  valid.  The  opinion 
of  the  court  is  of  importance  because  of  Judge  Marshall's  decision 
respecting  the  basis  of  the  government  of  territories. 
American  Jack,  see  appendix,  page  474. 

American  Party.  Hostility  to  the  political  influence  of  foreigners 
showed  itself  in  the  formation  of  small  and  local  nalivist  parties  in  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  in  1835  and  1844.  About  1852,  when  the  old 
parties,  Democratic  and  Whig,  were  obviously  in  a  state  of  dissolution 
or  re-formation,  and  when  immigration  had  taken  on  large  proportions, 
nativism  revived.  A  secret,  oath-bound  fraternity,  with  numerous 
lodges,  and  with  conventions  which  made  nominations  secretly,  attained 
sudden  importance.  From  the  professions  of  ignorance  with  which  its 
members  met  all  questioning,  they  were  called  "  Know-nothings."  In 
1854  the  Know-nothings  carried  Massachusetts  and  Delaware  ;  in  1855, 
most  of  New  England,  New  York.  Maryland,  Kentucky  and  California, 
and  polled  a  large  vote  in  the  South,  mainly  from  former  Whigs.  Their 
platform  demanded  more  severe  naturalization  laws  and  the  selection  of 
none  but  natives  for  office.  In  national  convention  at  Philadelphia  in 
February,  1856,  they  nominated  ex-President  Millard  Fillmore  for  the 
Presidency,  and  A.  J.  Donelson,  of  Tennessee,  for  Vice-President.  Bnt 
the  slavery  issue  thrust  all  others  aside,  and  the  ticket  received  but 
874,534  votes  in  a  total  of  over  4,000,000,  and  but  eight  electoral  votes, 
those  of  Maryland.  The  party  soon  died  out,  though  the  Constitutional 
Union  party  of  i860  was  in  a  way  its  successor.  Recently  the  American 
Protective  League  and  other  similar  organizations  have  revived  the 
nativist  program. 

American  Republican  Party,  formed  in  New  York  in  1842,  as 
the  successor  of  the  Native  American  party  of  1835.  They  demanded 
that  public  offices  should  be  filled  only  by  native  Americans,  and  that 
naturalization  should  not  be  allowed  until  after  a  sojourn  of  twenty-one 
years  in  the  country.     It  was  a  precursor  of  the  Know-nothing  party. 

American  Whigs,  the  first  political  party  of  America,  came  into 
existence  in  the  struggles  preceding  the  Revolution.  They  resisted  the 
arbitrary  measures  of  King  George  III.  and  declared  their  independence 
of  him.     They  opposed  the  Tories,    the  supporters  of  the   crown   in 


$8  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY, 

America,  and  after  the  Revolution  confiscated  the  property  of  banished 
Tories. 

Americus  Vespucius,  Latinized  from  Amerigo  Vespucci  (1452- 
1512),  was  born  at  Florence.  He  engaged  in  trade  in  the  employ  of 
the  house  of  Medici,  and  became  known  as  an  expert  astronomer,  cal- 
culator and  map-maker.  He  made  four  voyages  to  America,  two  in  the 
Spanish,  and  two  in  the  Portuguese  service.  The  first  voyage  in  1497- 
98  was  until  recently  confounded  with  the  second  voyage  made  in 
1499- 1 500  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America.  In  1501-02  he 
visited  the  Brazilian  coast,  and  in  1503-04  sailed  in  the  same  direction. 
He  was  pilot-major  of  Spain  from  1508  till  his  death  at  Seville.  To  the 
region  of  his  Brazilian  discoveries  he  gave  the  name  of  Mundus  Novus. 
This  was  considered  to  be  a  Quaria  Pars,  a  ;'  fourth  part,"  added  to  the 
previously  known  world  of  the  old  maps  ;  and  a  teacher  of  geography, 
Waldeesmuller,  in  the  town  of  St.  Die,  in  Lorraine,  proposed  in  1507 
the  name  America  for  the  Quarta  Pars.  His  little  treatise,  Cosmo- 
graphics  Introduction  spread  the  suggestion,  and  the  name  America 
came  gradually  to  be  transferred  from  Brazil  to  the  entire  Continent. 

Ames,  Oaks  (1804-1873),  of  Massachusetts,  manufacturer.  His  firm 
carried  on  an  enormous  business  in  the  manufacture  of  shovels,  espe- 
cially in  the  early  days  of  the  gold-finding  in  California  and  Australia. 
They  had  a  large  interest  in  the  building  of  the  Union  Pacific  E.ailroad, 
which  they  transferred  to  the  Credit  Mobilier.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1862  to  1873.  He  was  censured  by  the  House  for  his 
connection  with  the  Credit  Mobilier  scandal. 

Amherst,  Jeffrey,  I/Ord  (1717-1797)  soldier,  was  commissioned 
major-general  by  Pitt  and  sent  to  co-operate  with  Prideaux  against  the 
French  in  Canada.  Took  Ticonderoga  in  1759.  In  1760  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor-General  of  British  America  ;  in  1763,  titular  Governor 
of  Virginia  ;  and  from  1793  to  1795,  commander-in-chief  of  the  British 
army. 

Amherst  College  was  founded  by  the  Congregational ists  in  1S21. 
Its  most  famous  presidents  were  Edward  Hitchcock  and  Julius  IT. 
Seelye. 

Amistad  Case,  The.  In  1839  the  cargo  of  negro  slaves  on  board 
this  Spanish  vessel,  bound  for  Puerto  Principe  from  Havana,  rose  and 
killed  the  whites  and  took  possession  of  the  ship.  The  ship  was  seized 
by  a  U.  S.  war  vessel  off  Long  Island  and  carried  to  New  London.  The 
U.  S.  District  Court  of  Connecticut  decided  that  the  slaves  were  "  prop- 
erty rescued  from  pirates  "and  should  be  returned  to  their  Spanish 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  39 

owners,  under  the  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Spain.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  reversed  this  decision,  declaring 
that  the  blacks,  having  been  kidnaped  from  a  foreign  country,  were 
free  men  and  not  bound  by  treaties  with  Spain. 

Amnesty.  In  1862  Congress  authorized  the  President  to  offer  full 
pardon  to  all  persons,  excepting  the  most  prominent  movers  in  the  Rebel- 
lion who  would  swear  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States.  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  issued  the  first  proclamation  of  amnesty  December  8,  1863. 
On  March  26,  1864,  a  supplementary  proclamation  was  issued.  The  next 
proclamation  was  issued  by  President  Johnson  May  29,  1865.  A  bill 
was  passed  in  1867  repealing  the  act  of  1862,  but  President  Johnson 
ignored  it,  adhering  to  his  constitutional  right  to  pardon.  On  Sep- 
tember 7,  1867,  President  Johnson  issued  another  proclamation  extend- 
ing pardon  to  all  but  a  few  classes.  July  4,  1868,  pardon  was  offered 
for  treason  to  all,  except  those  under  indictment,  and  December  25, 
1868,  full  amnesty  to  all.  The  Congressional  Act  of  May  22,  1872,  re- 
moved political  disability  from  all  but  the  most  prominent  Confederates. 

"  Amy  Warwick,"  a  vessel  belonging  to  persons  living  in  Rich- 
mond, and  captured  July  10,  1861,  by  the  U.  S.  cruisers  as  "enemy's 
property."  The  vessel  was  at  the  time  of  capture  on  the  high  seas 
from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Richmond,  laden  with  tobacco  and  not  attempting 
to  run  the  blockade.  This  capture  first  distinctly  raised  the  question 
of  the  right  of  the  United  States  to  exercise  war  powers  in  suppressing 
the  Confederacy. 

Anarchists.  The  Anarchists  of  the  United  States  are  almost 
entirely  foreign  born.  Chief  and  best  known  among  them  is  Johann 
Most,  who  edited  the  Anarchist  paper  Freiheit.  Their  greatest  strength 
is  in  Chicago,  where  they  incited  a  serious  riot  May  4,  1886.  Several 
leaders  were  executed  and  others  were  imprisoned,  but  were  pardoned 
in  1893  by  Governor  Altgeld,  of  Illinois.  Popular  reaction  since  1886 
has  done  much  to  decrease  Anarchistic  tendencies. 

Anarchy,  see  appendix,  page  474. 

Anatomy  I/awS.  Massachusetts  in  1784  passed  an  act  providing 
that  the  bodies  of  those  killed  in  duels  or  executed  for  killing  another 
in  a  duel  should  be  given  to  the  surgeons  to  be  dissected.  New  York 
in  1789  passed  a  law  punishing  the  disinterment  of  bodies  for  purposes 
of  anatomy.  Massachusetts  in  1831  passed  the  first  liberal  law  for  the 
benefit  of  anatomy  passed  in  any  English-speaking  country,  giving  to 
the  surgeons  the  bodies  of  criminals  and  of  State  paupers  who  died 
without  leaving  relatives.  But  the  New  York  law  of  1789  had  given 
judges  the  power  to  order  the  dissection  of  executed  criminals  as  a  part 


4o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

of  their  sentence.     Most  States  have  since  1831  passed  acts  more  or  less 
liberal  to  authorize  dissection. 

Anderson,  Fort,  North  Carolina,  was  garrisoned  in  1865  by  6,000 
Confederates  under  Hoke.  February  18  it  was  assaulted  by  fifteen 
Federal  war  vessels  commanded  by  Admiral  Porter  and  by  a  land  force 
under  Schofield  and  Terry.  The  attack  from  land  and  sea  was  simul- 
taneous. The  garrison  fled  almost  immediately,  leaving  ten  heavy  guns 
and  much  ammunition.     The  national  flag  was  raised  the  next  day. 

Anderson,  Robert  (1805-1871),  of  Kentucky,  soldier,  served  in  the 
Black  Hawk,  Florida  and  Mexican  Wars.  He  was  severely  wounded  at 
Molino  del  Rev.  In  November,  i860,  he  took  command  of  the  troops 
and  forts  in  Charleston  Harbor.  In  December  he  withdrew  all  his 
troops  to  Fort  Sumter,  which,  after  a  bombardment  of  thirty-six  hours 
by  the  Confederates,  he  was  compelled  to  evacuate  April  13,  1861.  On 
April  13,  1865,  he  again  hoisted  the  flag,  on  the  fourth  anniversary  of 
Sumter's  fall. 

Anderson,  Thomas  McArthur,  born  in  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  January 
22,  1836,  graduate  of  St.  Mary's  College  and  Cincinnati  law  school. 
Filtered  the  Civil  War  as  a  private  and  rose  rapidly  by  promotion  in  the 
regular  army  until  he  became  major-general  of  volunteers  August  13, 
1898.  In  the  first  expedition  to  the  Philippines  he  commanded  the  first 
division,  8th  Army  Corps. 

Anderson  vs.  Dunn  (1821),  an  action  of  trespass,  brought  for  as- 
sault and  battery  and  false  imprisonment  against  Dunn,  sergeant-at- 
arms  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  by  Anderson,  a  member  of  the 
House,  who  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  House  for  a  breach  of  privilege. 
The  Supreme  Court  decided  that  the  Constitution  authorizes  the  House 
to  punish  its  members  for  contempt,  and  judgment  was  affirmed  for  the 
defendant. 

Andersonville,  Sumter  County,  Georgia,  site  of  a  Confederate  mil- 
itary prison  for  Federal  soldiers  during  the  Civil  War.  The  mortality 
of  this  prison  was  very  great,  12,926  soldiers  dying  there.  Henry 
Wirtz,  a  Swiss  adventurer,  the  superintendent  of  the  prison,  was  tried, 
after  the  war,  by  a  military  commission  and  hung  for  excessive  cruelty, 
November  10,  1865.  As  to  the  culpability  of  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment, opposite  views  have  been  maintained.  Andersonville  is  now  the 
site  of  a  national  cemetery  for  Union  soldiers. 

Andre,  John  (1751-1780),  acting  adjutant-general  to  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  and  the  unfortunate  victim  of  Arnold's  treason.     After  varied 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  41 

experiences  in  the  Revolutionary  War  he  was  sent  by  Clinton  to  arrange 
with  Benedict  Arnold  the  details  of  the  latter's  projected  treachery. 
The  two  conferred  in  secret  near  Stony  Point,  on  the  Hudson,  and 
Andre*  started  back  to  New  York.  When  near  Tarrytown  he  was 
stopped  by  three  Americans,  searched  and  delivered  to  the  military 
authorities.  A  military  court  condemned  him  to  death  as  a  spy,  and 
he  was  hanged  at  Tappan,  across  the  river,  on  October  2,  1780.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  a  monument  was  many  years  after- 
ward erected  in  Tarrytown  in  memory  of  the  affair.  The  three  patriots, 
John  Paulding,  David  Williams  and  Isaac  Van  Wart,  were  rewarded  by 
Congress.  ..  .  . 

Andrew,  John  A.  (1818-1867),  the  famous  War  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, had  become  known  as  a  lawyer  and  member  of  the  Legislature, 
when  in  i860  he  was  elected  by  the  Republicans  as  Governor.  His 
years  of  office,  1861  to  1866,  coincide  with  the  Civil  War  period,  and  he 
was  the  heart  and  soul  of  the  patriotic  sentiment  in  the  State.  His  serv- 
ices in  equipping  and  forwarding  the  militia,  in  co-operating  with  other 
executives,  and  his  advocacy  of  radical  measures  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  war,  entitled  him  to  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  group  of  "War 
Governors. ' ' 

Andrews,  U,  Benjamin,  born  in  1844,  became  president  of  Brown 
University  in  1889.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  the  International 
Monetary  Conference  at  Brussels  in  1892.  He  wrote  "Institutes  of 
General  History, "  "Institutes  of  Constitutional  History, "  and  "Insti- 
tutes of  Economy. ' '  He  was  elected  superintendent  of  schools  in  Chi- 
cago in  1898. 

Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl  (1812-1886),  of  New  York,  author,  was 
an  ardent  Abolitionist,  the  founder  of  the  present  s}'stem  of  phono- 
graphic reporting  and  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  tried  to  create  a 
universal  language  called  "alwato,"  but  he  failed  to  accomplish  this 
ambition. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund  (1637-1714),  was  born  in  London,  and  was 
early  in  life  a  soldier  and  bailiff  of  the  Island  of  Guernsej\  He  began 
his  American  career  as  Governor  of  New  York  in  1674-81  ;  to  which  in 
1680  he  added  by  seizure  New  Jersey.  When  his  patron,  the  Duke  of 
York,  had  become  king  as  James  II.,  he  appointed  Andros  in  1686 
Governor  of  the  northern  colonies,  including  New  England  and  New 
York.  Andros  was  arbitrary  in  his  headquarters  in  Boston  and  else- 
where in  New  England,  though  the  story  of  the  "  charter  oak  "  of  Con- 
necticut is  by  some  considered  apocryphal,     The  overthrow  of  James 


42  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

II.  led  the  people  of  Boston  to  depose  Andros  in  April,  1689,  and  de 
was  sent  to  England,  but  not  tried.  He  was  again  Governor,  1692-^8, 
this  time  of  Virginia. 

Angell,  James  B.,  born  in  Rhode  Island  in  1829,  educator,  was 
professor  of  modern  languages  and  literature  in  Brown  University  from 
1853  to  i860;  editor  of  the  Providence  Journal  from  i860  to  1866; 
president  of  the  University  of  Vermont,  from  1S66  to  1871,  since  which 
time  he  has  been  president  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  except  during 
1880  and  1881,  when  he  was  Minister  of  the  United  States  in  China. 
Became  Minister  to  Turkey,  1897  to  1898. 

Annapolis,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1649  by  Puritan  refugees  from 
Virginia  and  became  the  capital  of  the  colony  in  1689.  It  was  first  called 
Providence,  but  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1696,  and  received  its 
present  name  (after  Queen  Anne)  in  1708.  The  U.  S.  Naval  Academy 
was  established  here  in  1845. 

Anne  (1664-1714),  Queen  of  Great  Britain  from  1702  to  1714.  In 
1704  a  proclamation  of  Queen  Anne,  regarding  the  colonial  currency, 
ordered  a  uniform  scale  of  legalized  depreciation  in  the  colonial  coinage 
S3'stem.  A  proclamation  of  Queen  Anne  in  1713  forced  the  slave  trade 
upon  the  colonies,  England  having  been  granted  the  monopoly  of  this 
trade  under  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  (See  Queen  Anne's 
War.) 

Annexations.  After  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  the 
different  States  ceded  all  the  territories  to  the  west  of  them  and  included 
in  their  original  charters,  to  the  Union.  Many  of  these  territories 
nominally  extended  to  the  Pacific  coast,  but,  in  practice,  only  as  far  as 
the  Mississippi  River.  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas  were  then  under 
Spanish  dominion,  and  thus  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River  was 
blocked,  causing  great  inconvenience  to  settlers  west  of  the  Alleghames. 
It  had  ever  been  the  fixed  policy  of  Spain  to  exclude  all  foreign  com- 
merce from  this  stream.  She  had  refused  to  treat  with  Jay  upon  tnis 
point  in  1780-82.  In  1786  the  United  States  withdrew  its  demand  for  a 
navigation  treaty,  but  the  clamorings  of  the  Western  settlers  caused  their 
renewal,  and,  in  1795,  Thomas  Pinckney,  Envoy  Extraordinary,  nego- 
tiated a  treaty  of  friendship  and  boundaries,  by  which  free  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi  was  opened,  as  well  as  the  port  of  New  Orleans.  In  1800 
Spain  retroceded  Louisiana  to  France,  to  which  country  it  had  belonged 
until  the  peace  of  1763.  The  treaty  of  1795  was  abrogated  and  the  West 
was  again  in  a  ferment.  It  was  proposed  in  the  Senate  that  the  President 
order  out  50,000  militia  and  capture  New  Orleans.     Instead  James 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


43 


Monroe  was  sent  to  co-operate  with  Robert  R.  Livingston  for  the  pur- 
chase of  New  Orleans  in  1803.  A  prospective  war  with  England  induced 
France  to  sell  all  Louisiana,  and  the  purchase  was  negotiated  for 
$15,000,000  on  April  30,  1803,  the  treaty  being  signed  by  Livingston  and 
Monroe  for  the  Union,  and  Barbe-Marbois  for  France.  By  this  step 
j  efferson  obtained  for  the  United  States  1, 171,931  square  miles  of  territory, 
comprising  Alabama  and  Mississippi  south  of  paralled  310,  all  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  Montana,  Minnesota  west 
cf  the  Mississippi,  most  of  Kansas,  a  large  part  of  Colorado,  and 
Wyoming.  The  Federalists  angrily  attacked  this  move  of  Jefferson  as 
being  utterly  unconstitutional,  and  the  President  did  not  attempt  to 
defend  himself,  but  sought  indemnity.  Florida  was  next  annexed. 
The  United  States  claimed  Florida,  but  Spain  denied  having  ceded  it  to 
France  with  Louisiana.  In  1810  the  people  of  West  Florida  declared 
their  independence.  Governor  Claiborne,  of  New  Orleans,  was  sent  by 
the  President  to  take  possession  of  Mobile  and  West  Florida.  In  1818 
Spain  was  much  annoyed  by  a  war  with  the  Seminoles,  and  accordingly 
a  treaty  was  concluded  February  22,  1S19,  by  which  Florida  was  ceded 
to  the  Union  in  consideration  of  the  payment  of  $5,000,000  for  Spain  in 
private  claims  by  citizens  of  the  States.  Texas  had  been  claimed  by 
both  France  and  Spain,  but  after  the  revolt  of  Mexico  was  in  reality 
under  Mexican  rule.  In  1836  Texas  seceded  and  declared  herself  free, 
defeating  the  Mexican  General  Santa  Anna,  but  was  not  recognized  by 
Mexico.  The  United  States,  England,  France  and  Belgium  recognized 
the  new  republic.  Many  politicians  favored  the  annexation  of  Texas, 
and  in  1844  Calhoun,  Secretary  of  State  under  Tyler,  actually  concluded 
a  treaty  to  this  effect,  which  was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  After  con- 
siderable maneuvering  and  political  intrigue,  a  joint  resolution  was 
passed  in  the  Senate  February  27,  1845,  and  in  the  House  February  28, 
and  Texas  was  admitted  to  the  Union.  As  a  result  of  the  Mexican  War 
and  by  the  payment  of  $15,000,000  and  $3,250,000  in  claims  of  private 
citizens  against  Mexico,  California,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada  and 
part  of  Arizona  and  Colorado  were  added  to  the  Union  in  1848  (545*783 
square  miles).  By  the  Gadsen  Treaty  in  1853  the  southern  part  of 
Arizona,  45,535  square  miles,  was  purchased  from  Mexico.  Alaska, 
577,390  square  miles,  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  for  $7,200,000  on 
June  30,  1867,  by  Russia.  The  Spanish  War,  1898,  added  Porto  Rico, 
Cuba  and  Guam,  an  island  of  the  Ladrones,  and,  for  the  payment  of 
$20,000,000,  the  Philippine  group,  and  in  the  same  year  Hawaii  was 
annexed. 

Antarctic  Expedition.     In  1839  Captain  Wilkes,   of  the  U.   a 
Navy,  conducted  an  exploring  expedition  toward  the  South  Pole.     He 


44  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

divscovered  in  January,  1840,  a  portion  of  a  large  continent  in  latitude 
6i°  30'  S.  and  longitude  1610  K.  He  traced  the  coast  westward  to  longi- 
tude 1010  E.,  but  was  prevented  from  landing  by  the  ice. 

Anthony,  Henry  Bowen  (1815-1884),  was  born  at  Coventry,  R.  L, 
and  died  at  Providence.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1833,  and  became  the  editor  of  the  Providence  Journal  and  the  most 
influential  of  New  England  journalists.  He  was  elected  Whig  Governor 
of  Rhode  Island  in  1849  and  1850.  From  1859  to  1884  he  was  uninter- 
ruptedly Republican  U.  S.  Senator  from  Rhode  Island,  and  was  .several 
times  chosen  president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate.  His  career  there  is 
among  the  longest  on  record.  His  valuable  collection,  the  Harris 
Library,  was  left  to  Brown  University. 

Anthony,  Susan  B.,  born  in  1820,  of  New  York,  reformer,  es- 
pecially in  matters  connected  with  the  civil  status  of  women.  In  1854 
and  1855  she  held  conventions  in  every  county  of  New  York  in  favor  of 
Woman  Suffrage,  and  has  done  much  to  secure  the  passage  of  laws  giv- 
ing to  women  more  control  over  their  property  than  is  permitted  by  the 
common  law. 

Antietam  Creek,  Md.,  one  of  the  great  battles  of  the  war  ;  a  two 
days'  fight  between  the  Federals  and  Confederates  under  McClellan  and 
Lee,  September  16,  17,  1862.  McClellan  commanded  87,000  troops  ;  Lee 
41,000.  The  Confederates  were  stationed  along  the  Antietam  Creek, 
their  flanks  resting  on  the  Potomac  River,  having  placed  strong  guards 
at  three  of  the  four  stone  bridges  which  crossed  the  creek.  Hooker's 
brigade  was  dispatched  across  the  fourth  and  unguarded  bridge  to  at- 
tack the  Confederate  flank,  while  the  batteries  of  both  sides  kept  up  a 
continual  fire.  Scarcely  more  than  a  skirmish  took  place  when  dark- 
less fell.  At  sunrise  Hooker  assaulted  Jackson  with  some  success,  but 
reinforcements  at  that  point  forced  him  to  give  way.  The  hottest  of  the 
fighting  continued  on  this  flank  throughout  the  morning,  constant 
reinforcements  being  sent  to  Jackson,  and  Franklin  and  Sumner  com- 
ing lip  to  assist  Hooker.  Burnside  had  early  been  ordered  to  capture 
the  bridge  in  his  front  and  cross  to  attack  Lee's  center,  but  this  he  de- 
layed doing  until  he  found  it  almost  an  impossibility.  Finally,  how- 
ever, he  succeeded,  and  crossing,  he  dislodged  the  Confederates,  who 
were  stationed  upon  the  heights  overlooking  Sharpsburg.  At  this 
point  Hill  arrived  with  2,000  fresh  Confederate  troops,  who,  uniting 
with  Lee,  drove  Burnside  out  and  retook  the  heights.  Both  sides  suffered 
severely,  the  Union  loss  being  12,410  and  the  Confederates  12,512  ;  there 
was  mutual  desistance,  and  Lee  withdrew  on  the  19th.  The  battle  was 
followed  by  the  emancipation  proclamation. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY  45 

Anti-!Federa.li8tS9  a  political  party  which  first  came  into  existence 
in  opposing  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution.  Its  leaders  were 
George  Clinton,  Patrick  Henry  and  others.  Failing  in  this  they  were 
for  a  time  utterly  demoralized.  During  the  First  Congress  this  party 
showed  itself  but  little,  but  in  the  first  session  of  the  Second  Congress 
there  were  symptoms  of  an  Anti-Federalist  revival.  They  opposed  Ham- 
ilton and  his  followers  and  gradually  became  champions  of  the  strict 
construction  of  the  Constitution  and  opponents  to  what  they  termed 
"  monarchical  "  Federalism.  After  the  rise  of  the  "  Republican  "  party 
under  Jefferson  the  Anti-Federalists  lost  their  identity  in  the  advocacy 
of  its  principles  (1793)- 

Anti-I<ecompton,  the  Congressional  faction  of  the  Democratic  j 
party,  which  opposed  in  1858  the  admission  of  Kansas  to  the  Union' 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Iyecompton  slavery  constitution.  Critten- 
den and  Douglas  led  this  faction  in  the  Senate,  Montgomery  in  the 
House.  A  vote  was  taken  in  the  House  April  1,  on  the  Crittenden- 
Montgomery  resolution  that  the  Lecompton  constitution  should  have 
the  honest  test  of  popular  vote  in  Kansas  before  she  should  become  a 
State.    The  Anti-Lecomptons  won  by  a  vote  of  120  to  112. 

Anti-Masonry.  The  Freemasons  had  in  1820  many  prominent 
politicians  among  their  members.  In  1826  William  Morgan,  of  Batavia, 
N.  Y.,  threatened  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  the  society.  He  was  arrested 
and  a  judgment  was  obtained  against  him  for  debt.  He  was  then  car- 
ried to  Niagara  in  a  closed  carriage  and  never  again  heard  of.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  next  town  and  county  elections  candidates  refusing 
to  resign  from  the  Freemasons  found  a  strong  Anti-Mason  vote 
polled  against  them.  From  being  local,  anti-masonry  became  wide- 
spread through  New  York,  and  finally  affected  national  politics.  In 
1828  the  National  Republican  party  of  New  York  nominated  State  can- 
didates who  were  not  Freemasons,  and  an  Anti-Masonic  State  conven- 
tion nominated  candidates  pledged  against  freemasonry.  This  party 
soon  displaced  the  National  Republicans  as  opponents  of  the  Democrats 
in  New  York.  Anti-masonry  spread  to  other  States  and,  notably  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Vermont,  strongly  affected  the  elections.  In  New 
York,  William  H.  Seward,  Thurlow  Weed  and  Millard  Fillmore  were 
Anti-Masonic  leaders.  John  Quincy  Adams  had  by  this  time  lost  con- 
trol of  the  National  Republicans  and  Clay  was  becoming  popular.  In 
their  National  Convention  at  Baltimore  in  1831  (the  first  of  national 
nominating  conventions )  the  Anti-Masons,  hoping  to  force  Clay,  who 
was  a  Mason,  out  of  the  field,  nominated  Wirt  and  Ellmaker.  But  the 
National  Republicans  persisted  in  nominating  Clay.     Wirt  and  Ell* 


46  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

maker  received  the  electoral  vote  of  Vermont  only.  After  this  the  Anti- 
Masons  died  out  as  a  distinct  national  party,  being  absorbed  by  the 
Whigs.  They  continued  to  exercise  some  influence  in  a  few  States, 
however,  for  a  time. 

Anti-Monopoly  Party  was  formed  May  14,  1884,  at  Chicago,  de- 
manding economical  government,  equitable  laws,  including  an  Interstate 
Commerce  law,  laws  establishing  labor  bureaus  and  providing  industrial 
arbitration,  direct  vote  for  Senators,  graduated  income  tax,  payment  of 
the  national  debt  as  it  matures,  and  "fostering  care"  for  agriculture, 
and  denouncing  the  tariff  and  the  granting  of  land  to  corporations.  It 
joined  later  with  the  Greenback  Labor  party  under  the  name  of  the 
"People's  party." 

Anti-Nebraska  Men,  a  name  first  given  the  Northern  Whigs  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Southern  Whigs  in  respect  to  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill.  Their  ranks  were  reinforced  by  Anti-Slavery  Democrats, 
and  though  not  a  distinct  party  they  gained  control  of  the  House  in  the 
Thirty-fourth  Congress.  They  soon  became  absorbed  in  the  Republi- 
can party. 

Apaches,  a  nation  of  roving  Indians  belonging  to  the  Athabascan 
family.  They  were  early  the  terror  of  the  Spanish,  and  since  the  an- 
nexation of  their  territory  to  the  United  States  the  tribe  has  given  great 
trouble.  Mangos  Colorado  for  fifty  years  led  large  hostile  bands,  until 
finally  killed  in  1863.  Later,  attempts  were  made  to  remove  the 
Apaches  to  a  reservation  in  New  Mexico.  The  plan  was  opposed  by 
the  whites  on  the  frontiers,  and  led  to  the  massacre  of  over  100  Apa- 
ches at  Camp  Grant,  Arizona,  April  30,  187 1. 

Appointing"  Power.  In  the  colonial  period  the  Crown  appointed 
the  governors  and  councils,  and  the  governors  appointed  most  other 
officers.  The  new  constitutions  made  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution, 
because  of  fear  of  tyranny,  usually  lessened  the  appointing  power  of 
governors.  The  Continental  Congress  appointed  few  officers.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  gives  the  President  power  to  appoint  all  officers 
(subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate) ,  except  such  inferior  officers  as 
Congress  may  provide  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  alone,  by  the 
courts  of  law,  or  by  the  heads  of  departments.  The  participation  by 
the  Senate  has  led  to  much  injurious  collusion  in  appointments  dic- 
tated by  considerations  of  party  politics,  under  the  name  of  "the 
courtesy  of  the  Senate."  Presidents  at  first  made  appointments  for 
fitness  solely,  and  made  no  removals  for  political  causes.  But  Jefferson 
first,  and  afterward,  and  more  largely,  Jackson,  introduced  that  policv 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  4T 

of  partisan  appointment  and  removals  which  is  known  as  the  "  Spoils 
System." 

Appomattox,  Va.,  the  final  battle  between  the  Confederates, 
35,000  strong  under  Lee,  and  the  Federals,  numbering  100,000  under 
Grant,  of  the  Richmond  and  Petersburg  campaign  of  1S64-65.  Lee's 
army  was  retreating  as  rapidly  as  its  forlorn  condition  would  permit, 
when,  Crook  and  Sheridan  having  captured  a  Confederate  provision 
train  near  Appomattox,  Custer  pushed  on  to  that  place  and  fought  the 
wearied  Confederates  till  dark.  They  were  severely  defeated  and  many 
prisoners  were  taken.  This  occurred  April  8,  1865.  The  following  day, 
as  Sheridan  was  preparing  for  a  charge,  the  Confederates  waved  a  white 
flag,  and  Lee,  after  interchange  of  communications,  surrendered  the 
arm}'  of  Northern  Virginia  to  Grant.  The  terms  which  Grant  conceded 
were  that  both  officers  and  men  should  be  released  on  parole  and  should 
keep  their  horses,  "because  they  would  need  them  for  the  spring 
plowing  and  farm  work." 

Apportionment,  the  distribution  of  representation  in  the  Federal 
House  of  Representatives  and  in  the  houses  of  the  different  State  legis- 
latures. It  is  sometimes  used  in  a  fiscal  sense  as  applied  to  the  allot- 
ment of  direct  taxes  on  the  basis  of  population.  As  far  back  as  William 
Penn's  plan  of  general  government  for  the  colonies  objection  was  made 
against  equal  representation  of  colonies.  The  Albany  Plan  of  Union 
provided  that  each  colony  .should  be  represented  in  the  Grand  Council 
by  from  two  to  seven  delegates,  according  to  the  amount  of  taxes  paid 
by  each.  In  the  Continental  Congress  the  rule  of  equal  representation 
prevailed,  each  State  having  one  vote.  This  rule  was  retained  in  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  for  long  contentions  over  the  matter  showed 
that  no  other  plan  could  win  acceptance.  In  the  Convention  of  1787 
there  was  long  and  bitter  dispute  over  questions  of  representation. 
Finally  it  was  settled  that  the  Federal  legislature  should  consist  of  two 
branches,  that  the  States  should  be  equally  represented  in  the  upper,  or 
Senate,  and  that  in  the  lower,  or  House  of  Representatives,  each  should 
have  a  number  of  members  proportioned  to  the  number  of  its  free  in- 
habitants, plus  three-fifths  of  the  slaves.  A  provisional  apportionment 
was  inserted  in  the  Constitution,  and  in  1790  a  census  was  taken. 
Direct  taxes  were  to  be  apportioned  in  the  same  manner  as  representa- 
tion. The  lower  house  should  have  no  more  than  one  representative 
for  every  30,000  inhabitants.  This  constitutional  rule  governed  appor- 
tionments during  seventy  years,  though  the  ratio  was  changed  from 
time  to  time.  Much  debate  arose  over  the  question  of  fractional  repre- 
sentation.     In  the  Thirty-first  Congress  Vinton,  of  Ohio,  moved   to 


48  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

divide  the  representative  population  of  the  entire  country  bj'  233  and 
that  of  each  State  by  the  quotient,  assigning  to  each  State  representa- 
tion for  each  full  ratio  and  the  remaining  members  necessary  to  make 
up  233  to  the  States  having  the  largest  fractions.  This  method  has 
guided  subsequent  apportionments.  Federal  apportionments  are  made 
shortly  after  each  decennial  census,  and  the  State  apportionments  are 
guided  by  the  Federal.  Methods  of  apportionment  in  different  States 
vary,  however.     (See  Gerrymander.) 

Arapahoes,  a  tribe  of  Indians  residing  at  the  headwaters  of  the 
Arkansas  and  Platte  Rivers.  They  have  generally  been  friendly  to 
the  whites. 

Arbor  Day,  a  day  set  apart  by  most  of  the  States  and  Territories 
for  planting  trees.  Arbor  Day  was  inaugurated  by  the  Nebraska 
State  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1874,  the  second  Wednesday  in  April 
being  the  day  .set. 

Arbuthnot,  Marriot  (1711-1794),  British  admiral,  was  made  vice- 
admiral  and  commander-in-chief  on  the  American  station  in  1779  an(l 
co-operated  with  Clinton  in  the  capture  of  Charleston  in  1780. 

Archaeological  Institute  of  America.  This  society  was  founded 
at  Boston  in  1879,  and  has  devoted  the  larger  part  of  its  interest  to 
classical  archaeology.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  institution,  Mr.  A.  F. 
Bandelier  was  sent  to  New  Mexico  to  study  the  Pueblos,  and  at  the 
same  time  Ayme\  American  Consul  at  Merida,  was  commissioned  to 
explore  Yucatan.  In  1885  tne  American  Jotimal  of  Archeology  was 
started  at  Baltimore  as  the  society's  official  organ. 

Archive  War.  In  1842,  after  Texas  had  declared  her  independence 
of  Mexico,  the  Texan  seat  of  government  was  at  Austin.  During  that 
year  the  Mexicans  under  Vasquez  destroyed  San  Antonio  and  threat- 
ened Austin.  The  President  fled  to  Houston  and  demanded  that  the 
government  archives  should  be  transferred  to  that  city.  This  the 
citizens  of  Austin  refused  to  allow.  Vigilance  and  archive  committees 
were  appointed.  In  September  the  President  sent  Captain  Smith  and 
thirty -five  men  to  take  the  archives  by  force.  This  was  accomplished, 
but  the  citizens  of  Austin  pursued  the  captors  and  recovered  the  archives, 
thus  determining  the  permanence  of  the  capital  at  Austin. 

Arctic  Discoveries.  Dr.  Kane  conducted  the  first  American 
expedition  in  Arctic  regions,  sailing  from  New  York  in  the  "  Ad- 
vance," May  30,  1853.  He  penetrated  Smith  Strait  as  far  as  Cape 
George  Russell,  and  then  returned  to  Van  Rensselaer  Harbor  for  the 
winter.     Frequent  excursions  were  made  from  this  place,  125  miles  of 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


49 


coast  being  traced  to  the  north  and  east.  Morton  and  another  of 
Kane's  company  penetrated  to  Washington  Land  in  latitude  820  27', 
discovering  an  open  channel  which  they  named  Kennedy.  Kane  re- 
turned in  1855,  having  been  farther  north  than  any  other  explorer. 
He  had  to  abandon  his  ship  and  go  overland  to  the  Danish  settlements 
in  the  south,  where  he  was  met  by  a  relief  party.  During  i860  Dr. 
Isaac  Hayes,  one  of  Kane's  party,  advanced  as  far  as  8i°  35'  north  lati- 
tude, but  was  obliged  to  return,  without  having  made  any  important 
discovery.  Dr.  Charles  F.  Hall,  of  Connecticut,  led  an  expedition  the 
same  year  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  lost  his  boat  and  was 
obliged  to  return.  He  made,  however,  some  important  discoveries  of 
Frobisher's  expedition  300  years  before.  Under  Hall,  the  same  year, 
another  party  found  actual  relics  of  Franklin's  party,  and  learned  from 
the  natives  that  he  had  discovered  a  northwest  passage  before  aban- 
doning his  ships.  Hall  spent  five  years  among  the  Esquimaux.  He 
then  returned  and  organized  a  third  party,  which  reached  820,  where 
Hall  died.  In  1881  Lieutenant  Greely,  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  was  sent  to 
take  charge  of  the  American  Signal  Service  Bureau  at  Lady  Franklin 
Bay,  it  having  been  arranged  that  a  relief  expedition  should  be  sent  to 
him  the  following  year.  The  first  relief  party,  under  Lieutenant  Beebe, 
sailed  in  June,  1882,  but  could  get  no  farther  than  latitude  710  20'.  The 
second,  under  Lieutenant  Garlington,  1883,  was  equally  unsuccessful. 
In  1883  a  third  relief  party  was  dispatched  under  Captain  Winfield  S. 
Schley,  commanding  the  "Thetis"  and  the  "Bear."  The  few  sur- 
vivors of  the  Greely  party  were  found  October  21,  1883,  in  an  almost 
dying  condition.  Greely  had  reached  in  his  explorations  830  24'  north 
latitude,  the  highest  ever  reached.  In  1891  Lieutenant  Peary  con- 
ducted an  expedition  to  Greenland  under  the  auspices  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia.  He  reached  latitude  820,  and 
showed  the  northern  bounds  of  Greenland. 

"  ArgllS,"  an  American  war  brig,  Captain  Allen.  In  cruising  about 
the  British  Channel  it  destroyed  twenty  valuable  merchantmen  with 
cargoes  valued  at  two  million  dollars.  August  14,  1813,  it  was  attacked 
by  the  ' '  Pelican, ' '  eighteen  guns.  Captain  Allen  was  mortally  wounded. 
The  American  sailors,  who  were  somewhat  under  the  influence  of  cap- 
tured wine,  did  not  fight  as  well  as  usual,  and  after  forty-five  minutes' 
fighting  the  vessel  was  surrendered.  The  "  Argus  "  lost  twenty-three 
men,  the  "  Pelican  "  seven  men. 

Arizona  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1863,  partly  from  territory 
ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo  (1848)  and  partly  from  the  Gadsden  purchase  (1853).     It  was 
Vol.  V.— 4 


SO  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

first  visited  by  the  Spaniards,  Nizan  in  1539,  and  Coronado  in  1540. 
Jesuit  missions  were  early  established  among  the  Indians.  The  popu- 
lation of  Arizona  in  1890  was  59,620.     (History  by  Bancroft.) 

Arkansas  was  first  settled  by  the  French  in  1685.  It  formed  a  part 
of  the  Louisiana  cession  and  was  included  in  the  territory  called  Louis- 
iana until  1812  and  then  Missouri  Territory  until  1:819,  when  it  was 
organized  as  a  separate  territory,  including  the  present  Indian  Territory. 
Arkansas  became  a  State  June  15,  1836,  with  its  present  boundaries. 
The  State  was  steadily  Democratic  until  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  At 
first  the  opposition  to  secession  in  1861  was  very  strong,  but  upon  the 
call  of  President  Lincoln  for  troops  an  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed 
May  6,  1861.  The  Federal  troops  captured  Little  Rock  in  1863,  and  a 
loyal  State  government  was  organized.  The  State  was  re-admitted  June 
22,  1868.  The  Republicans  controlled  the  State  from  this  time  until 
1874.  Two  rival  factions  of  that  party  caused  an  armed  collision. 
Federal  troops  restored  order  and  President  Grant  recognized  Baxter, 
the  Republican  candidate,  as  Governor.  A  new  Constitution  was  adopted 
in  1874,  since  which  time  the  Democrats  have  controlled  the  State. 
The  present  Constitution  dates  from  1874.  Arkansas  had  a  population 
of  52,240  in  1836  and  1,128,179  in  1890. 

Arkansas  Post,  Arkansas,  occupied  during  Grant's  and  Sherman's 
campaign  along  the  Mississippi  River  by  Churchill  and  5,000  Confed- 
erates. On  the  night  of  January  10,  1863,  Sherman  ordered  McClernand 
to  advance  against  this  post  with  his  Federal  column,  while  Admiral 
Porter's  gunboats  shelled  the  Confederate  rifle  pits.  January  II,  an 
intensely  cold  day,  the  assault  was  successfully  made.  The  fort  was 
captured  and  5,000  prisoners  taken. 

Arlington,  in  Alexandria  County,  Virginia,  the  home  of  Mrs. 
Washington's  grandson,  G.  W.  P.  Custis,  and  the  birthplace  of  Mary 
R.  Custis,  afterward  the  wife  of  General  Robert  E.  Lee.  Through  the 
marriage  Lee  came  into  possession  of  this  estate.  During  the  Civil  War 
Arlington  was  confiscated  by  the  national  government,  and  has  been 
since  the  close  of  that  struggle  erected  into  a  national  cemetery  for 
Union  soldiers. 

Armed  Neutrality,  an  alliance  formed  in  1780-82,  by  nearly  all 
the  other  maritime  powers  of  Europe  for  protection  against  the  continued 
British  depredation  on  neutral  commerce.  The  Armed  Neutrality  was 
suggested  by  the  declarations  of  the  Russian  Empress  in  1780,  setting 
forth  certain  doctrines  of  international  law,  familiarly  summarized  as 
"  free  ships,  free  goods."  The  United  States  agreed  to  conform  to  these 
articles  October  8, 1780. 


y      ni    Tin"  r     • 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  51 

Armistead,  George  (1780-1818),  of  Virginia,  soldier,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  Canada,  in  18 13,  and  by  his  suc- 
cessful defense  of  Baltimore  in  1814. 

Armour,  Philip  D.,  see  appendix,  page  474. 

Armstrong,  John  (1758-1843),  was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  died 
at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.  He  served  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  after 
its  conclusion  wrote  the  first  "  Newburgh  Letters."  Entering  civil  life, 
he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Pennsylvania  and  member  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  in  1800-2  and  1803-4. 
He  was  Minister  to  France  from  1804  to  1810.  Appointed  brigadier- 
general  in  1812,  in  1813  he  entered  the  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  War. 
His  administration,  despite  some  radical  measures,  was  unsuccessful, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  resign  after  the  fall  of  Washington  in  1814. 

Army.  The  army  of  the  Revolution  consisted  of  two  elements,  the 
Continental  army,  organized  by  Congress,  and  the  militia,  organized 
by  the  States.  Though  upon  the  average  of  the  years  from  1775  to  178 1 
the  total  amounted  to  about  60,000,  there  were  often  not  more  than 
half  that  number  present  with  the  colors.  In  1783  this  army  was  dis- 
banded, and  the  United  States  maintained  but  a  few  hundred  soldiers. 
Temporarily  increased  by  the  Indian  wars  of  1792  and  by  the  troubles 
with  France  in  1798,  it  numbered  only  from  3,000  to  5,000  until  the 
War  of  1812.  During  a  portion  of  that  war  the  number  of  regular  troops 
rose  above  30,000,  while  the  number  of  militia  enlisted  was  470,000. 
During  the  next  thirty  years  the  army  averaged  but  9,000  men.  The 
regular  troops  enrolled  during  the  Mexican  War  were  about  27,000,  the 
volunteers  74,000.  Then  the  regular  army  dropped  again  to  10,000  men, 
later  12,000.  During  the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War  the  numbers  of  the 
regular  army  rose  to  32,000.  But  the  number  of  militia  and  volunteers 
was  vastly  greater.  Lincoln's  first  call  of  April  15,  1861,  was  for  75,000 
men  for  three  months.  Later  enlistments  were  mostly  for  three  years. 
At  the  beginning  of  i&52  the  number  of  volunteers  in  the  army  was 
about  550,000.  During  1863,  1864  and  1865  it  was  about  900,000.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  the  entire  Federal  army  numbered  a  million  men. 
The  total  number  furnished  first  and  last,  counting  re-enlistments,  was 
2,850,000.  The  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  was  General  Scott ;  from  November,  1861,  to  March,  1862,  General 
McClellan  ;  from  July,  1862,  to  March,  1864,  General  Halleck ;  during 
the  remainder  of  the  war  General  Grant.  The  leading  subdivisions  of 
the  Union  army  were,  in  the  Bast,  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  ;  in  the 
West,  those  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio,  all  finally 
united  under  Sherman.  The  most  important  subdivisions  of  the  Con- 
federate army  were  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  and  the  Army  of 


52  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Tennessee.  Conscription  was  employed  in  the  filling  up  of  both  Union 
and  Confederate  armies.  The  Confederate  forces  at  the  beginning  of 
1862  numbered  about  320,000  ;  during  1863,  1864  and  1865  they  averaged 
about  450,000  men.  Karly  in  1865  General  Lee  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  all  the  Confederate  forces.  In  1867  the  "peace 
establishment"  of  the  regular  army  was  fixed  at  54,641  men.  It  was 
then  reduced  by  successive  enactments  till,  in  1875,  it  was  brought  down 
to  27,000  men,  at  which  figure,  approximately,  it  has  ever  since  remained. 
The  army  expenditures  of  the  government  in  time  of  peace  were,  down 
to  the  Mexican  War,  from  one  to  five  or  six  millions  per  annum. 
Recently  they  have  been  from  $40, 000,000  to  $50,000,000. 

Arnold,  Benedict  (1741-1801),  general  and  traitor,  was  born  at 
Norwich,  Conn.  He  was  in  business  in  early  life,  as  a  druggist,  and  in 
other  lines.  When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out  he  was  appointed 
colonel  by  the  Massachusetts  Congress.  Served  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
famous  capture  of  Ticonderoga,  and  leaped  into  fame  by  his  masterly 
conduct  of  the  right  wing  in  the  attack  on  Canada  in  1775.  He  led  the 
columns  amid  extraordinary  hardships  and  difficulties  through  the 
Maine  woods,  arrived  in  November  and  was  wounded  in  the  assault  of 
Quebec  on  December  31.  Having  been  made  brigadier-general  he  was 
defeated  by  a  British  flotilla  at  Valcour  Island  in  Lake  Champlain  in 
October,  1776,  but  effected  a  skillful  retreat.  His  services  were  slighted 
by  Congress,  but  he  contributed  to  the  repulse  of  Tryon  in  Connecticut. 
He  was  at  last  made  a  major-general  and  took  a  brilliant  part  in  the 
Burgoyne  campaign.  He  dispersed  St.  Leger's  force  at  Fort  Stanwix, 
and  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  first  battle  of  Saratoga.  Although 
Gates'  jealousy  caused  him  to  be  superseded,  he  fought  gallantly  without 
orders  in  the  second  battle  and  ended  his  military  career  in  a  blaze  of 
glory.  He  next  commanded  in  Philadelphia,  was  court-martialed  on 
trivial  charges  and  reprimanded  by  Washington.  Obtaining  the  charge 
of  West  Point,  he  intrigued  with  Clinton  for  the  betrayal  of  that  post  to 
the  British,  but  the  capture  of  the  negotiator,  Andre\  frustrated  the 
scheme,  and  to  Arnold  there  fell  only  a  brigadier-generalship  in  the 
British  Army,  a  sum  of  money,  predatory  attacks  on  Virginia  and  New 
London,  and  eternal  infamy.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed 
in  England. 

Arsenals.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  no  arsenals  existed 
in  the  United  States,  but  in  1776  powder  was  manufactured  in  Virginia, 
and  brass  cannon  were  cast  in  Philadelphia.  A11  arsenal  was  established 
at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  the  same  year,  and  a  foundry  and  laboratory  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  on  the  recommendation  of  General  Washington.     This  was  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  53 

origin  of  the  present  national  armory.  The  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry 
was  commenced  in  1795,  and  continued  in  use  until  the  Civil  War.  In 
1838  the  Ordnance  Department  was  placed  in  charge  of  arsenals  and 
armories.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  there  were  twenty-three 
arsenals  and  armories,  and  their  number  has  since  been  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Artaguette,  of  Louisiana,  French  soldier  under  Bienville,  while 
leading  an  assault  on  the  Chickasaw  forts  on  the  Mississippi  River  in 
June,  1736,  was  taken  prisoner  and  burned  at  the  stake. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan  (October  5,  1830— November  18,  1886), 
twenty-first  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Fairfield,  Vt. 
He  was  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1848,  and  taught  school  for  some 
years.  He  then  studied  law  and  practiced  in  New  York  City,  obtaining 
local  reputation  as  a  champion  of  the  rights  of  colored  people  in  the 
city.  He  had  been  active  in  the  State  militia,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  joined  Governor  Morgan's  staff.  As  engineer-in-chief, 
acting  quartermaster-general  and  inspector-general,  he  performed  not- 
able services  in  the  Rebellion.  He  was  energetic  in  local  politics,  and 
was  in  1 87 1  appointed  Collector  of  the  Port  of  New  York,  from  which 
position  he  was  removed  by  President  Hayes  in  1878.  After  the  bitter 
contest  for  the  Republican  nomination  in  1880  had  ended  in  the  choice 
of  Garfield,  Mr.  Arthur  was  selected  for  the  second  place  on  the  ticket 
as  a  representative  of  the  Stalwart  faction.  He  became  Vice-President 
in  1881,  was  suddenly  called  to  the  first  position  by  the  assassination  of 
Garfield,  and  took  the  oath  of  office  on  September  20,  188  r.  The 
unfavorable  apprehensions  caused  by  his  active  interference  in  New 
York  politics  during  his  short  term  as  Vice-President  were  happily 
allayed  by  his  administration,  which  was  on  the  whole  dignified  and 
conservative.  Among  his  acts  was  the  emphasis  placed  by  him  on  the 
strengthening  of  naval  defense,  his  veto  of  a  Chinese  immigration  bill, 
and  a  veto  of  a  portentously  large  river  and  harbor  bill.  He  was  in  1884 
a  candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination  for  President,  but  was 
defeated  by  Mr.  Blaine.  He  retired  from  office  in  1885,  and  died  in 
New  York  City. 

Artillery.  In  the  United  States  the  present  field  artillery  of  the 
army  consists  of  ten  mounted  batteries,  two  to  each  regiment  of  artil- 
lery. The  other  ten  batteries  of  each  regiment  are  armed  and  equipped 
as  infantry  and  serve  mostly  in  forts  and  garrisons  along  the  seaboard. 
During  the  War  of  1812  field  batteries  were  created  by  mounting  foot 
batteries  from  the  artillery  regiments.  In  1836  Captain  Ringgold  or- 
ganized a  field  battery,  for  the  artillery  branch  had  been  neglected  since 


54  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  War  of  1812.  The  systems  of  field  and  siege  artillery  were  chiefly 
derived  from  France.  In  1820  there  were  four  regiments  of  artillery. 
In  the  Civil  War  three  field  batteries  were  attached  to  each  division  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  The  introduction  of  the  Parrott  gun  in  1861 
greatly  strengthened  the  artillery. 

Asbury,  Francis  (1745-1816),  missionary  bishop  of  "  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States,"  was  consecrated  in  1784, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  indefatigable  and  successful  evangelists 
ever  known. 

Ashburton,  I,ord,  Alexander  Baring  (1774-1848),  English 
banker  and  diplomatist,  became  in  1810  the  head  of  the  banking  house 
of  Baring  Brothers  &  Co.,  the  financial  agent  of  the  United  States 
during  the  War  of  1812.  In  1842,  as  special  Minister  to  the  United  States 
he  negotiated  with  Daniel  Webster  the  "Ashburton  Treaty,"  which 
settled  the  Northeastern  boundary  between  the  British  provinces  and 
the  United  States. 

Ashburton  Treaty  was  a  treaty  negotiated  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  by  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster  at  Wash- 
ington in  1842.  It  adjusted  the  boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  the  British  possessions  on  the  Northeast,  the  United  States  secur- 
ing about  seven-twelfths  of  the  disputed  territory.  The  mutual  extra- 
dition of  criminals  and  arrangements  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade  were  stipulated. 

Ashmun,  George  (1804-1870),  of  Massachusetts,  was  a  member  of 
the  General  Court  in  1833,  1835,  1836  and  in  1841  was  Speaker  of  the 
House,  was  U.  S.  Senator  in  1838  and  1839,  and  a  Representative  from 
1845  to  185 1.  In  1S60  he  was  president  of  the  convention  which  nomi- 
nated Lincoln. 

Asiento.  Under  one  of  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713, 
the  English  South  Sea  Company  had  the  contract  (asiento)  for  the 
annual  transportation  to  Spanish  America  of  not  less  than  4,800  negro 
slaves.  This  contract  had  formerly  been  accorded  to  a  company  of 
French  merchants.  Its  possession  by  the  English  stimulated  the 
English  slave  trade  to  the  English  colonies. 

Aspinwall,  William  H.  (1807-1875),  of  New  York,  merchant.  In 
1850  he  secured  the  contract  for  building  the  Panama  Railroad,  which 
was  completed  in  1854,  its  eastern  terminus  being  named  Aspinwall. 

Assiniboins,  a  tribe  of  Dakota  Indians,  in  Montana  and  Manitoba. 
They  separated  from  the  Yankton  Sioux,  after  a  bitter  quarrel,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  55 

Associated  loyalists,  a  Tory  society  formed  in  New  York  in 
1780  at  the  instance  of  the  British  government  and  independent  of  the 
orders  of  the  British  commander.  It  was  called  the  "  Honorable  Board 
of  Associated  Loyalists, ' '  and  was  in  reality  a  band  of  licensed  outlaws. 
They  continually  raided  the  shores  of  New  Jersey,  Connecticut  and 
Long  Island  in  piratical  expeditions,  and  were  in  league  with  the  rebel 
freebooters,  often  exchanging  prisoners  with  them.  Dr.  Franklin's  son, 
the  Tory  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  was  the  leader  of  the  society. 

Associated  Press,  an  association  organized  in  1848-49  by  a  num- 
ber of  New  York  newspapers,  for  the  purpose  of  conveniently  and  in- 
expensively collecting  and  transmitting  news.  Its  organization  was 
suggested  subsequently  to  the  establishment  of  the  first  telegraph  line 
between  Washington  and  Wilmington,  Del.,  and  because  of  the  delay  in 
receiving  dispatches,  owing  to  the  limited  lines.  The  first  members  of 
the  association  were  the  New  York  Sun,  the  Herald,  the  Tribune,  the 
Journal  of  Commerce,  the  Courier  and  Inquirer  and  the  Express. 
Contracts  for  lower  telegraph  rates  were  arranged  with  the  companies 
and  other  newspapers  were  admitted  to  the  association. 

Assumption.  In  1790  Alexander  Hamilton,  then  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  in  his  plans  for  restoring  the  national  credit,  proposed  that 
the  national  government  should  assume  the  payment  of  the  State  debts 
contracted  in  the  national  cause  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut  and  South  Carolina  enthusiastically  favored 
the  plan.  The  Middle  States  were  divided,  Pennsylvania  holding  off, 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  favoring  Hamilton.  Virginia  was  the 
strongest  opponent  of  the  scheme,  she  having  partially  liquidated  her 
debt  by  funding  securities  at  a  depreciated  rate,  and  by  selling  Ken- 
tucky lands.  Maryland,  Georgia  and  New  Hampshire  also  opposed  it. 
The  measure  was  near  passage  by  Congress,  when  the  North  Carolina 
delegates  took  their  seats  and  cast  their  votes  against  it.  Later  Hamil- 
ton secured  its  passage  by  effecting  a  combination  with  those  who 
desired  to  have  the  Federal  capital  placed  on  the  Potomac.  August  4, 
1790,  an  act  passed  by  which  State  debts  to  the  amount  of  121,500,000 
were  assumed  by  the  Federal  government. 

Astor,  John  Jacob  (1763-1848),  merchant,  came  from  Germany  to 
America  in  1783.  Founded  the  American  fur  trade,  in  which  he  mani- 
fested far-reaching  enterprise  and  acquired  immense  wealth. 

Astor,  William  B.  (1792-1875),  of  New  York,  capitalist,  as  a 
partner  with  his  father  (John  J.),  acquired  great  wealth",  with  which  he 
richly  endowed  the  Astor  Library  and  other  public  institutions. 


56  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Astor  library,  founded  in  New  York  City  by  John  Jacob  Astor, 
and  opened  in  1853.  He  bequeathed  $400,000  to  the  library,  and  this 
has  been  increased  by  bequests  of  $200,000,  and  $450,000  by  his  son, 
William  Black  Astor,  and  his  grandson,  John  Jacob  Astor. 

Astoria,  Ore.,  was  founded  by  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  in  181 1, 
and  was  for  a  long  time  the  chief  fur-trading  post  of  the  West.  In  1813 
the  British  government  took  possession  of  the  town  and  named  it  St. 
George.  Astoria  was  restored  to  the  United  vStates  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  War  of  181 2. 

Atkinson,  Edward,  born  in  1827,  of  Massachusetts,  economist,  is 
author  of  many  pamphlets  on  banking,  the  currency,  foods,  the  tariff, 
and  the  labor  and  other  social  questions,  and  became  specially  noted 
for  his  opposition  to  annexation  of  the  Philippine  Islands  against  the 
consent  of  the  natives. 

Atlanta,  capital  of  Georgia,  was  laid  out  in  1845  an(l  incorporated 
in  1847.  During  the  Civil  War  the  city  was  the  center  of  important 
military  operations.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary  engagement 
July  22,  1864,  between  Sherman's  army  of  the  Tennessee  numbering 
three  corps  and  Hood's  corps  of  Johnston's  army,  45,000  strong,  in 
which  the  Confederates  were  defeated  and  driven  back  to  their  in- 
trenchments  within  the  town.  Atlanta  was  afterward  besieged  by 
Sherman  and  captured  upon  Hood's  abandoning  it,  September  2,  1864. 
In  the  battle  of  July  22,  Hood  began  the  attack  by  falling  upon  Hardee 
on  Sherman's  left.  McPherson  gained  a  position  upon  a  high  hill, 
commanding  the  very  heart  of  the  town,  and  then  the  fight  went  on  all 
along  the  line.  Battery  F,  Second  United  States,  was  lost  in  a  sharp 
skirmish  on  a  country  road,  and  McPherson,  riding  to  its  assistance, 
was  killed.  The  battle  lasted  over  four  hours.  At  four  o'clock  Hood 
plunged  into  the  remnant  of  McPherson 's  line  and  drove  it  back  400 
yards,  carrying  two  important  batteries  in  the  face  of  a  murderous  fire. 
Schofield's  batteries  were  hurried  up  to  maintain  this  desirable  position 
and  aid  the  Fifteenth  Corps  to  regain  its  lost  ground  at  any  cost.  This 
move  was  successful.  Hood  retreated  to  his  intrenchments  having 
lost  all  his  guns  except  the  two  advance  ones.  Sherman  lost  3,722  men 
and  Hood  many  more.  Atlanta  became  the  capital  of  Georgia  in  1878. 
It  is  noted  for  its  enterprise  and  as  a  great  manufacturing  city.  In 
1895  Atlanta  was  selected  as  the  site  of  the  Cotton  States  and  Interna- 
tional Exposition,  which  was  opened  September  15  of  that  year  and 
closed  December  15  following.  The  enterprise  proved  highly  suc- 
cessful. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  57 

Atlantic  Cable  was  projected  by  Cyrus  W.  Field  in  1854.  In 
that  year  he  obtained  a  charter  from  the  Legislature  of  Newfoundland 
for  a  fifty  years'  exclusive  right  to  the  laying  of  a  cable  from  Newfound- 
land to  Great  Britain  and  from  the  Continent  of  America  to  Newfound- 
land. The  New  York,  Newfoundland  and  Loudon  Telegraph  Company 
was  occupied  two  years  in  completing  the  connection  between  America, 
at  Cape  Breton,  and  Newfoundland.  In  1856  Field  organized  the 
Atlantic  Telegraph  Company.  The  first  two  attempts  at  connecting 
the  two  continents,  in  1857  and  the  first  time  in  1858,  failed.  The 
third  attempt,  late  in  1858,  was  successful  but  lasted  only  a  few  mouths. 
Then  the  Civil  War  suspended  operations.  In  1865  the  "Great  East- 
ern "  laid  1,200  miles,  when  the  cable  snapped.  In  1866  two  thousand 
miles  were  safely  covered  and  the  Atlantic  Cable  was  established. 

Attorney-General.  Colonies  and  States  had  their  Attorneys- 
General  before  1789.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  that  year,  organizing  the 
Federal  judiciary  under  the  new  Constitution,  provided  for  an  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States,  to  act  as  government  counsel,  with  a 
salary  of  $1,500.  At  first  he  had  little  to  do,  and  could  practice  for 
himself  ;  but  he  was  always  a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  In  1858  he  was 
provided  with  an  assistant.  In  1861  he  was  given  charge  of  U.  S. 
district  attorneys  and  marshals.  In  1870  the  office  was  organized  as 
the  Department  of  Justice.  (For  a  list  of  the  Attorneys-General  see 
Cabinets. ) 

Attucks,  Crispns,  of  Massachusetts,  a  mulatto,  the  first  killed  in 
the  "Boston  Massacre"  of  March  5,  1770.  His  funeral  was  conducted 
with  great  public  ceremony. 

Auditors  of  the  Treasury.  The  auditor  was,  from  1782,  the  third, 
officer  of  that  department.  The  first  auditor  dates  from  September  2, 
1789  ;  the  second  auditor  from  March  3,  1817  ;  the  third  auditor  from 
March  3,  181 7  (appointed  in  lieu  of  the  Accountant  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, created  by  Act  of  Congress,  May  8,  1792) ;  the  fourth  auditor  and 
fifth  auditor,  March  3,  1817  ;  the  sixth  auditor,  July  2,  1836. 

Audubon,  John  J.  (1780-1851),  an  American  naturalist,  born  in 
Louisiana,  was  devoted  especially  to  ornithology.  His  magnificent 
work,  the  "  Birds  of  America,"  brought  him  great  fame  and  admission 
to  membership  in  many  learned  societies. 

Augur,  Christopher  C,  born  in  182 1,  soldier,  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can War  as  aid  to  General  Caleb  Cushing.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
major  ;  as  brigadier-general  commanded  a  division  at  Cedar  Mountain, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded.     He  was  made  major-general  in  1862. 


58  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  army  at  Port  Hudson.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  he  was  commandant  of  various  military  departments.  Re- 
tired in  1884.     Died  1898. 

Austin,  Tex.,  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  in 
1839.  For  a  brief  period  in  1842  this  position  was  disputed  with  Hous- 
ton, but  Austin  retained  it,  and  since  the  annexation  of  Texas  in  1845 
has  been  capital  of  the  State. 

Austria-Hungary.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between 
the  United  States  and  Austria-Hungary  in  1829.  A  convention  relative 
to  disposal  of  property  was  concluded  in  1848,  another  relative  to  ex- 
tradition in  1856,  and  a  third  concerning  the  rights,  privileges  and  im- 
munities of  consuls,  July  11,  1870.  By  a  convention  concluded  Septem- 
ber 20,  1870,  the  rights  of  naturalization  were  recognized  of  citizens  of 
both  countries  after  a  residence  of  five  years  and  legal  naturalization. 
A  convention  relative  to  trade-marks  was  concluded  November  25,  187 1. 

Averell,  William  W.,  born  in  1832,  of  New  York,  cavalry  officer, 
was  ordered  to  frontier  duty  in  1857,  where  he  saw  much  Indian  fight- 
ing. In  1 86 1  as  colonel  he  commanded  the  cavalry  in  the  defense  of 
Washington.  In  March,  1863,  he  began  the  series  of  cavalry  raids  in 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia  that  have  made  him  famous.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  brevet  major-general. 

Averysboro,  N.  C.  Near  this  place  on  March  15,  1865,  Slocum's 
division  of  Sherman's  Federal  army  encountered  9,000  Confederates 
under  Hardee,  who  was  marching  to  join  Johnston.  Hardee  was  posted  in 
a  swampy  neck,  and  the  Federals,  after  a  severe  conflict,  succeeded  in 
dislodging  him.  They,  however,  suffered  most  in  killed  and  wounded. 
Hardee  retreated  in  the  night  toward  Smithfield. 


B. 

Babcock,  Orville  3$.  (1835-1884),  officer  of  engineers,  was  at  the 
siege  of  Vicksburg  in  1863,  and  was  an  aide  to  General  Grant  from  1864 
till  1869.  He  superintended  the  construction  of  many  public  works  in 
Washington.  In  1776  he  was  tried  in  St.  Louis  upon  the  charge  of 
receiving  bribes  from  members  of  the  whiskey  ring  for  influence  with 
the  President  (Grant),  but  was  acquitted. 

Bache,  Sarah  (1744-1808),  of  Philadelphia,  only  daughter  of 
Benjamin  Franklin,  was  active  in  aid  of  the  suffering  soldiers  in  1780, 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  59 

having  more  than  2,000  women  sewing  for  the  army  under  her  direc- 
tion. 

Bacon's  Rebellion.  In  July,  1676,  Governor  Berkeley,  of  Virginia, 
had  become  exceedingly  unpopular  because  of  his  inefficiency  in  pro. 
tecting  the  settlers  from  Indian  ravages,  his  tendency  to  restrict  the 
franchise  and  institute  high  tax  rates.  The  people,  therefore,  led  by 
Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  popular  lawyer,  took  up  arms,  ostensibly  against  the 
Indians,  but  in  reality  in  order  to  resist  the  Governor  and  bring  him  to 
terms.  Berkeley  was  compelled  to  make  concessions,  dismantle  the 
forts,  dissolve  the  old  assembly  and  issue  writs  for  a  new  election.  Bet 
he  did  not  keep  faith  with  the  insurgents.  Consequently  a  desultor  t 
war  broke  out,  in  the  course  of  which  Jamestown,  then  the  capital 
of  the  colony,  was  burned.  Berkeley  was  forced  to  take  refuge  on 
some  English  vessels.  Bacon  died  in  1677  and  the  Rebellion  ended  for 
want  of  a  leader. 

Badeau,  Adam,  born  in  1831,  soldier,  was  severely  wounded  at  Port 
Hudson  in  1863.  He  was  military  secretary  to  General  Grant  from  1864 
to  1869,  and  consul-general  at  London  from  1870  to  1881.  He  published 
a  book  on  Grant's  military  career.     Died  1895. 

Bailey,  Gamaliel  (1807-1859),  of  New  Jersey,  journalist,  an  active 
anti-slavery  agitator.  From  1836  to  1844  he,  with  James  G.  Birney, 
published  the  Cincinnati  Philanthropist,  whose  publication  office  was 
three  times  sacked  by  a  mob,  and,  from  1847  till  his  death,  the  National 
Era  at  Washington,  in  which  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin"  originally 
appeared. 

Bailey,  Joseph  (1827-1867),  of  Wisconsin,  military  engineer,  as 
lieutenant-colonel  accompanied  the  army  under  General  Banks  in  the 
Red  River  Expedition,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself  by  conceiving 
and  executing  in  twelve  days  the  celebrated  dam  by  which  he  saved 
Admiral  Porter's  fleet  and  for  which  he  received  the  thanks  of  Congress 
and  the  brevet  rank  of  brigadier-general. 

Bailey,  Joseph  W.,  see  appendix,  page  475- 

Bailey,  Theodorus  (1805-1877),  naval  officer,  was  active  in  the 
Mexican  War  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  was  second  in  command  in 
Farragut's  fleet,  which  captured  New  Orleans  in  1862. 

Bainbridge,  William  (1774-1833),  commodore,  began  life  as  a 
sailor  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  had  several  impromptu  encounters  with 
British  vessels  before  he  was  appointed  to  the  navy  in  the  war  with 
France,  1798.  In  the  Tripolitan  War  in  1803  he  commanded  the 
"  Philadelphia,"  which,  in  1804,  was  wrecked.  Bainbridge  was  held  in 
captivity  for  over  a  year  by  the  Tripolitans.     His  great  exploit  was  in 


6o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  War  of  1812,  when  as  commander  of  the  famous  "Constitution" 
he  defeated  and  captured  the  British  "  Java,"  December  26,  1812.  His 
later  service  was  in  the  navy  yards,  in  Mediterranean  ports  and  as  naval 
commissioner. 

Baird,  Spencer  F.  (1823-1887),  of  Washington,  D.  C,  naturalist,  in 
1878  he  succeeded  Professor  Joseph  Henry  as  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  from  1871  was  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries, 
for  his  work  in  connection  with  which  he  received  several  medals  and 
decorations  from  foreign  powers,  and  membership  in  many  learned 
societies. 

Baker,  Edward  Dickenson  (1811-1861)  attained  distinction  in 
Illinois  as  an  eloquent  orator,  a  lawyer  and  Whig  Congressman  in 
1843-49.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  afterward 
settled  in  California.  Removing  to  Oregon,  he  was  a  Republican  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1861.  He  was  a  colonel  in  the  Civil  War,  and  while  com- 
manding the  Federal  troops  in  the  unfortunate  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff, 
October  21,  1861,  he  was  killed  in  front  of  his  men. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunefc  (1475-1517),  a  Spanish  soldier.  He  dis- 
covered the  Pacific  Ocean  on  September  25,  15 13.  Four  years  later  he 
was  charged  with  contemplated  revolt  and  was  beheaded. 

Baldwin,  Abraham  (1754-1807),  of  Georgia,  was  chaplain  in  Gen- 
eral Greene's  army  from  1777  till  the  close  of  the  war.  As  a  member 
of  the  Legislature  of  Georgia  he  was  the  originator  of  the  University  of 
Georgia  and  was  its  first  president.  Was  in  Congress  from  1785  to 
1799,  a  member  of  the  Federal  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1799  till  his  death. 

Ballot.  The  first  instance  of  the  use  of  the  ballot  in  American  elec- 
tions was  in  the  choice  of  a  pastor  by  the  Salem  Church  on  July  20, 
1629.  In  1634  it  began  to  be  used  in  elections  of  the  Governor  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1639  a  ballot  with  some  restrictions  was  instituted 
in  the  fundamental  orders  of  Connecticut.  In  1629  the  ballot  was  used 
in  some  municipal  and  ecclesiastical  elections  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
seems  not  to  have  been  used  in  England.  It  may,  therefore,  have  been 
introduced  by  imitation  of  the  Dutch,  but  this  is  not  yet  proved. 
Voting  by  ballot  was  made  obligatory  by  the  constitutions  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey  and  North  Carolina,  adopted  in  1776.  Open  voting 
long  prevailed  in  some  of  the  Southern  States,  but  the  ballot  system 
has  long  been  generally  in  vogue  except  in  Kentucky,  where  the  viva 
voce  method  prevailed  till  1890  for  local  and  State  elections.  Represent- 
atives in  Congress  are  elected  by  ballot  under  the  provisions  of  an  Act 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  6x 

of  Congress  of  1875.  In  Alabama,  Florida,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Kentucky, 
Louisiana,  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee  and  Texas, 
there  is  a  constitutional  provision  requiring  the  Legislature  to  vote 
viva  voce.  In  1888  the  Australian  ballot  system  was  adopted  at  Louis- 
ville, K>\,  and  in  Massachusetts.  With  more  or  less  variations  in  the 
form  a  large  majority  (37)  of  the  States  have  now  (1894)  followed  this 
plan  of  voting,  the  exceptions  being  the  Caroliuas,  Georgia,  Florida, 
Louisiana,  Texas  and  Idaho. 

Ball's  Bluff,  Va.  Here,  September  21,  1861,  Colonels  Baker  and 
Evens,  with  1,900  Federal  soldiers  of  McClellan's  army,  fell  in  with  a 
Confederate  ambush  and  were  utterly  routed.  Evens  had  been  sent 
to  reconnoiter  and  capture,  if  possible,  a  supposed  Confederate  camp 
near  Leesburg.  The  camp  could  not  be  found,  and  Evens  sent  to 
Stone,  his  superior,  for  further  orders.  Baker  was  sent  to  join  him, 
arriving  in  time  to  share  the  defeat.  The  Confederates  fought  from  the 
shelter  of  the  woods.  The  Federal  troops  were  driven  over  the  Bluff 
and  many  killed  in  a  hand-to-hand  fight,  among  them  Colonel  Baker, 
ex-Senator  from  Oregon. 

Baltimore,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1729-30.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  it  had  6,000  inhabitants.  In  1777  a  mob  assailed  a  Tory 
editor  (Goddard).  In  181 2  there  was  a  more  serious  outbreak  against 
a  Federal  paper,  Hanson's  Federal  Republican.  In  1814  the  British 
were  repulsed  from  the  city  in  the  battle  of  North  Point  and  the  bom- 
bardment of  Fort  McHenry.  On  April  19,  1861,  a  body  of  Federal 
troops  on  their  way  to  Washington  were  attacked  in  Baltimore  by  a 
mob  and  a  number  of  citizens  and  soldiers  were  killed.  On  May  13 
,  General  Butler  took  military  possession  of  the  city.  He  was  succeeded 
by  General  Banks  and  later  by  General  Dix.  Population  in  i860, 
212,418;  in  1890,  434>i5i- 

Bancroft,  Edward  (1744-1820),  an  American  of  literary  and  scien- 
tific tastes  residing  in  England  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  through 
friendship  with  Deane  and  Franklin  obtained  information  which  he 
sold  to  the  British  government. 

Bancroft,  George  (1800-1891),  the  most  famous  American  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  College  and  studied  extensively  in  Germany. 
Returning,  he  taught,  and  became  active  as  a  Democratic  politician. 
In  1834  he  published  the  first  volume  of  a  history  of  the  United  States, 
which  speedily  attained  enormous  popularity.  The  volumes  appeared 
successively  from  this  time  to  1882.     Under  Polk  Bancroft  was  Secre- 


62  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tary  of  the  Navy,  1845-46,  established  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis, 
and  caused  the  seizure  of  California.  From  1846  to  1849  ne  was  Min- 
ister to  Great  Britain  ;  from  1867  to  1874  to  Germany.  His  history  is 
still  the  most  important  history  of  the  United  States  by  a  single  author. 
The  last  portion  was  separately  published  as  a  History  of  the  Formation 
and  Adoption  of  the  Constitution.  His  narrative  is  learned,  picturesque 
and  ardently  patriotic. 

Bank  of  North.  America,  chartered  by  Congress  at  Philadelphia, 
December  31,  1781,  upon  the  suggestion  of  Robert  Morris.  It  also  re- 
ceived a  charter  from  Pennsylvania  in  1783.  Morris  believed  this 
national  bank  would  relieve  the  financial  situation. 

Bank  of  trie  United  States  vs.  Halstead.  This  case  came  be- 
fore the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  on  a  certificate  of  division 
from  the  Circuit  Court  of  Kentucky  in  1825.  Certain  property,  includ- 
ing real  estate,  was  exposed  to  sale  for  debt,  but,  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  its  appraised  value  being  bid,  it  was  not  sold.  The  Supreme 
Court  decided  that  it  had  jurisdiction  in  a  case  to  which  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  was  a  party,  and  that  a  law  which  forbade  sales  of 
land  under  execution  for  less  than  three-fourths  of  its  appraised  value 
did  not  apply  to  writs  of  execution  issued  by  Federal  courts. 

Bank  of  the  United  States  vs.  Planters'  Bank  of  Georgia,  an 

important  Supreme  Court  case.  This  was  a  suit  brought  by  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States  for  payment  of  a  promissory  note  of  which  it  was 
the  indorsee  for  the  Planters'  Bank  of  Georgia.  The  State  held  stock 
in  the  latter  bank.  The  case  was  tried  in  the  Circuit  Court,  where  there 
was  a  division  of  opinion  as  to  jurisdiction.  The  Supreme  Court  decided 
in  1824  that,  if  a  State  became  a  party  to  a  banking  or  commercial  enter- 
prise, the  State  could  be  sued  in  the  course  of  the  business  ;  also  that 
the  Circuit  Court  had  jurisdiction  in  such  matters. 

Bankruptcy.  The  power  to  establish  uniform  laws  on  the  subject 
of  bankruptcy  is  conferred  upon  Congress  by  the  Constitution,  notwith- 
standing which  the  power  has  been  exercised  four  times  and  always 
with  unsatisfactory  results.  The  first  bankruptcy  act  passed  Congress 
and  became  a  law  April  4,  1800,  but  was  repealed  in  1803,  and  no  fur- 
ther attempt  was  made  to  adopt  a  new  act  until  1841,  when  a  bill  passed 
in  August  of  that  year  by  a  small  majority  that  continued  in  force  less 
than  two  years.  A  third  bill  was  introduced  and  adopted  in  March,  1867, 
but  was  repealed  in  1878.  Thereafter  several  attempts  were  made,  at 
nearly  ever}'-  session  of  the  national  Legislature,  to  pass  an  acceptable 
bill,  but  it  was  not  until  1898  that  another  uniform  law  was  passed, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  63 

which  went  into  effect  July  1  and  is  now  in  force,  though  great  opposi- 
tion to  its  provisions  has  been  made  in  nearly  every  State  and  its  repeal 
is  continually  threatened. 

Banks.  Nearly  all  the  colonies  emitted  paper  money  (bills  of  credit), 
and  frequently  these  bills  were  issued  under  the  forms  of  banking.  The 
English  government  opposed  these  schemes.  In  1781  the  Continental 
Congress  chartered  the  Bank  of  North  America,  but  its  power  to  do  yo 
was  doubted,  and  the  bank  was  chartered  by  Pennsylvania  in  1783.  Vp 
to  1 791  the  only  banks  in  the  United  States  were  this  and  two  others, 
one  in  Boston  and  one  in  New  York.  In  1791,  at  the  instance  of  Alex- 
ander Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Congress,  against  consider- 
able opposition,  incorporated  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  with  a 
capital  of  $10,000,000.  The  United  States  was  to  subscribe  $2,000,000 
of  this.  The  charter  was  to  run  twenty  years.  The  bills  of  the  l:ank 
were  to  be  receivable  in  payment  of  dues  to  the  government,  and  it  had 
the  power  to  establish  branch  banks.  The  power  of  Congress  to  incor- 
porate such  a  bank  wras  denied  by  Jefferson  and  others.  But  Hamilton 
argued  that  such  powers  were  implied  in  the  very  nature  of  a  sovereign 
government,  and  were  conferred  by  the  clause  in  the  Constitution  giving 
Congress  power  to  pass  ' '  all  laws  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into 
execution "  the  enumerated  powers.  This  view  was  upheld  by  the 
Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of  McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  which  established 
the  constitutionality  of  the  Bank  Act.  The  first  bank  of  the  United 
States  led  a  prosperous  and  useful  existence  till  1S11, -when  its  charter 
expired,  Congress  refusing  to  recharter  it.  During  the  crisis  of  the  War 
of  1812  only  State  banks,  mostly  ill-regulated,  existed.  In  1816  the 
second  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  organized,  with  a  charter  running 
twenty  years  and  a  capital  of  $35,000,000,  four-fifths  of  it  in  government 
stocks.  The  government  was  to  have  the  appointment  of  five  of  the 
twenty -five  directors  and  the  bank  was  to  have  the  custody  of  the  public 
funds.  In  1829  President  Jackson,  angered  by  the  bank's  refusing  a 
political  favor,  began  a  series  of  attacks  upon  it.  In  1832  Congress 
passed  an  act  renewing  its  charter.  Jackson  vetoed  it.  In  the  election 
of  1832  Jackson  was  victorious  over  the  Whigs  and  the  bank,  which  he 
considered,  and  had  indeed  forced  to  be,  dangerously  implicated  in 
politics.  In  September,  1833,  by  his  orders,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  caused  the  government  deposits  to  be  diverted  from  the  bank, 
and  lodged  in  State  banks  (called  "pet  banks").  The  Senate's  pro- 
tests were  unavailing.  In  1836  the  bank's  charter  expired.  Tyler,  in 
1841,  vetoed  two  bills  to  revive  it,  and  in  1846  the  Independent  Treasury 
s}'stem,  already  tried  in  1840-41,  was  permanently  established.  From 
1836  to  1863  State  banks  alone  existed.     In  the  earlier  part  of  this 


64  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

period  they  were  often  uncontrolled  by  the  State  governments  and  quite 
unsound,  banks  being  established  and  bills  issued  by  adventurers  pos- 
sessing no  capital  to  sustain  them.  New  York  provided  a  system  of 
State  supervision,  which  was  in  part  the  germ  of  the  national  bank  sys- 
tem of  1863.  In  that  year,  February  25,  the  National  Bank  Act  was 
passed.  It  permits  any  five  persons  to  establish  a  national  bank  and, 
on  depositing  United  States  bonds  with  the  Comptroller  of  the  Cur.- 
rency,  to  issue  bank  notes  to  an  amount  not  exceeding  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  par  value  of  those  bonds.  The  notes  so  issued  are  guaranteed  by 
the  government,  which  inspects  the  banks  from  time  to  time,  and  are 
receivable  in  payment  of  taxes.  On  March  3,  1865,  an  act  was  passed 
imposing  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent.  011  the  circulation  of  State  banks,  but 
this  was  subsequently  repealed,  and  this  imposition  being  removed, 
State  banks  increased  until  their  number  now  exceeds  that  of  national 
banks. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  born  in  1816,  originally  a  machinist,  was 
Representative  from  Massachusetts  from  1853  to  1857.  In  1855  he  was 
chosen  Speaker,  after  a  contest  lasting  more  than  two  months,  on  the 
133d  ballot.  He  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1858,  1859  an(i  J86o. 
As  major-general  in  the  Civil  War  he  fought  the  indecisive  battle  of 
Cedar  Mountain  and  took  Port  Hudson,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  the  Red 
River  Expedition  of  1864.  Again  a  member  of  Congress  from  1865  to 
1873  ;  from  1877  to  1879  I  all°^  from  1889  to  1891.  Died  September  1, 
1894. 

Banks,  Savings.  The  first  incorporated  in  the  United  States  was 
the  Boston  Provident  Savings  Institution,  incorporated  December  13, 
1 816.  The  Philadelphia  Savings  Fund  Society  went  into  operation  the 
same  year,  and  was  incorporated  in  1819.  In  1818  savings  banks  were 
incorporated  in  Baltimore  and  Salem,  Mass.,  and  in  1819  in  New  York, 
Hartford,  Conn.,  and  Newport  and  Providence,  R.  I.  There  are  now 
more  than  a  thousand,  with  deposits  amounting  to  more  than 
1450,000,000. 

Baptists.  In  most  of  the  colonies  the  Baptists  were  persecuted.  In 
Rhode  Island  they  were  especially  numerous.  They  had  much  to  do 
with  that  agitation  for  religious  liberty  which  culminated  in  the  passage 
of  the  first  amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In 
1762  there  were  fifty-six  Baptist  churches  in  the  region  now  occupied  by 
the  United  States  ;  in  1792,  1,000  ;  in  1812,  2,433  \ in  l832>  5»322  J in  1852, 
9,500  ;  in  1872,  18,397.  According  to  the  census  of  1890,  there  were  in  that 
year,  of  all  varieties  of  Baptists,  41,629  church  organizations,  with 
3» 594)^93  communicants.     In  1845  the  Baptists  split  into  a  northern  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  65 

a  southern  body,  because  of  differences  arising  out  of  the  question  of 
slavery. 

Bar  at  aria,  Pirates  of,  a  band  of  Louisiana  outlaws,  who,  undo* 
their  chief  Lafitte,  rendered  General  Jackson  material  assistance  in  his 
Louisiana  and  New  Orleans  campaign  in  1815.  They  had  refused  offers 
from  the  British. 

Barbour,  James  (1775-1842),  Governor  of  Virginia  from  181 2  to 
1815  ;  Senator  from  that  State  from  1815  to  1825  ;  Secretary  of  War 
from  1825  to  1828  ;  then  for  a  year  Minister  to  England. 

Barbour,  Philip  P.  (1783-1841),  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
Representative  from  Virginia  from  1814  to  1825,  and  from  1827  to  1830. 
He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1821  to  1823,  and 
a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  from  1836  to  1841. 

Barker,  Wharton,  see  appendix,  page  475. 

Barlow,  Joel  (1754-1812),  born  in  Connecticut,  was  graduated  r.t 
Yale  College  and,  as  one  of  the  "  Hartford  Wits, "  distinguished  himseif 
in  literature,  especially  by  the  publication  of  his  epic  poem,  "  The 
Vision  of  Columbus,"  in  1787.  Going  abroad  as  a  land  ag~nt  in  17SS, 
he  engaged  in  Republican  politics  in  England  and  France,  negctL.ted 
the  treaty  with  Algiers  in  1795,  and  devoted  himself  for  several  years  to 
literary  and  mercantile  pursuits,  residing  at  Paris.  Other  poems  of  his 
were  "  Hasty  Pudding  "  and  "  The  Columbiad."  In  i8or  he  returned 
to  America.  Appointed  in  181 1  Minister  to  Napoleon,  he  died  in  Poland 
in  1812. 

Barnburners,  a  faction  of  the  Democratic  party  in  New-  York 
State,  so  called  from  an  alleged  eagerness  for  radical  measures,  in  al- 
lusion to  the  story  of  the  Dutchman  who  burned  down  his  barn  to  clear 
it  from  rats.  The  election  of  Polk  in  1844  resulted  in  a  split  of  the  party 
in  New  York  into  two  factions,  the  "Barnburners,"  representing  the 
Van  Buren  wing  and  opposing  the  extension  of  slavery  in  the  terri- 
tories, and  the  "Hunkers,"  representing  the  administration  and  its 
views.  In  1848,  in  the  Democratic  National  Convention,  there  were  con- 
testing delegations  from  New  York  representing  the  two  factions.  Un- 
able to  secure  complete  recognition,  the  Barnburners  joined  in  the  Free- 
Soil  Convention,  voted  for  Van  Buren,  and  so  helped  to  elect  Taylor. 
The  breach  between  Barnburners  and  Hunkers  was  healed  in  1852,  more 
or  less  perfectly. 

Barnes,  Joseph  K.  (181 7-1883),  surgeon-general  U.  S.  A.  from  1863 
to  1882,  founded  the  Army  Medical  Museum  and  the  invaluable  library 
of  the  surgeon-general's  office.  // 

Vol.  V.— 6 


66  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Barney,  Joshua  (1759-1818),  a  naval  officer  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  distinguished  himself  by  gallantry  and  by  various  adventures,  and 
in  1782  commanded  the  "  Hyder  Ali  "  in  its  capture  of  the  "  General 
Monk."  From  1794  to  1800  he  was  in  the  naval  service  of  the  French 
Republic.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  flotilla 
which  was  to  defend  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Bladensburg. 

Barre',  Isaac  (1726-1802),  a  British  colonel,  Member  of  Parliament 
from  1 76 1  to  1790,  obtained  great  popularity  in  America  by  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  Stamp  Act  and  to  the  American  policy  of  Lord  North's  ad- 
ministration. 

Barren  Hill,  Pa.,  twelve  miles  from  Philadelphia.  In  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  the  Americans,  commanded  by  Lafayette,  eluded  an  at- 
tempt of  Howe  to  capture  them  at  this  point,  May  20,  1778.       .  », 

Barron,  James  (1769-1851),  commodore  in  the  U.  S.  Navy,  com- 
manded the  ' '  Chesapeake  ' '  when  the  ' '  Leopard  ' '  attacked  and  cap- 
tured her,  in  1807.     Barron  was  tried  by  court-martial,  found  guilty    f 
negligence  in  preparation,  and  suspended  for  five  years.     In  1820  h 
killed  Commodore  Decatur  in  a  duel  arising  out  of  this  trial. 

Barrowists,  the  followers  of  Henry  Barrow,  or  Barrowe,  a  church 
reformer  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  advocated 
church  government  by  elders,  and  freedom  of  religious  thought  within 
certain  limits.  Their  creed  resembled  somewhat  that  of  the  modern 
Congregationalists,  and  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  the  Congregational 
Church  of  New  England  sprang  from  them.     (See  Brownists. ) 

Barrnndia,  Jose'  M.,  Guatemalan  revolutionist,  sailed  from  Aca- 
pulco,  Mexico,  to  San  Jose\  Guatemala,  in  an  American  merchant  vessel 
(1890).  At  San  Jos6,  the  Guatemalan  authorities,  in  an  attempt  to 
arrest  him  on  board  the  steamer,  killed  him.  U.  S.  Minister  Mizner 
and  Commander  Reiter,  U.  S.  Navy,  refused  to  interfere,  since  interna- 
tional law  conceded  jurisdiction  in  such  cases  to  the  authorities  of  the 
country.     The  Navy  Department  censured  Reiter. 

Barry,  John  (1745-1803),  born  in  Ireland,  an  active  commander  in 
the  Revolutionary  navy.  In  the  "Lexington"  he  captured  the 
"  Edward,"  the  first  British  war-vessel  taken  by  a  commissioned  officer 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  In  1781,  in  the  "  Alliance,"  he  captured  the 
"  Atalanta  "  and  the  "  Trepassy."  On  the  revival  of  the  navy  in  1794 
he  was  named  senior  officer,  with  the  rank  of  commodore. 

Barry,  William  T.  (1785-1835),  born  in  Virginia,  attained  distinc- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  67 

tion  in  Kentucky  politics,  and  was  Postmaster-General  to  Jackson  from 
1829  to  1835.  He  was  the  first  Postmaster-General  who  was  admitted 
as  a  member  into  the  Cabinet. 

Bartholdi,  Frederic,  born  1834,  French  sculptor,  executed,  at  the 
instance  of  the  French-American  Union,  the  colossal  statue  of  "  liberty 
Enlightening  the  World,"  which  has  been  placed  on  Bedloe's  Island  to 
adorn  New  York  harbor. 

Bartlett,  William  Francis  (1840-1876),  a  Massachusetts  officer  in 
the  Civil  War,  especially  conspicuous  for  gallantry  in  action,  left  his 
class  at  Harvard  to  enter  the  army  as  a  private  in  1861,  and  rose  before 
the  end  of  the  war  to  be  a  brevet  major-general.  He  was  wounded  at 
Yorktown  and  Port  Hudson,  and  taken  prisoner  at  Petersburg. 

Barton,  Clara,  born  iii  Massachusetts  in  1830,  bore  an  important 
part  in  caring  for  the  wounded  on  the  battle-fields  of  the  Civil  War ; 
also  in  the  Franco-German  and  Spanish-American  Wars.  In  1881  she 
became  president  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Society,  and  in  1884 
represented  the  government  at  the  Red  Cross  Conference  at  Geneva. 

Bates,  Edward  (1793-1869),  born  in  Virginia,  became  a  prominent 
lawyer  in  Missouri.  Having  warmly  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise,  he  was  a  somewhat  prominent  candidate  for  the 
Republican  nomination  to  the  Presidency  in  the  Chicago  Convention  of 
i860.     He  was  attorney-general  under  Lincoln  from  1861  to  1863. 

Baton  Rouge,  lya.,  capital  of  the  State  since  1849,  was  taken  by  a 
part  of  Farragut's  fleet  in  May,  1862,  immediately  after  his  capture  of 
New  Orleans.  On  August  5  General  Williams  was  attacked  there  by 
the  Confederate  General  Breckenridge,  but  the  attack  was  repulsed,  the 
ram  "Arkansas  "  failing  to  support  it.     General  Williams  was  killed. 

Battle  Hymn  of  Republic,  see  appendix,  page  475. 

"  Battle  of  the  Kegs,"  a  celebrated  humorous  poem  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  written  by  Francis  Hopkinson.  Its  theme  was  an  un- 
successful attempt  of  the  Americans,  in  January,  1778,  to  destroy  the 
British  shipping  at  Philadelphia  by  floating  down  combustibles  from 
above.  L  * 

Batture  Cases.  Some  fifteen  years  before  the  cession  of  Louisiana 
to  the  United  States,  one  Gravier  had  purchased  a  plantation  along  the 
Mississippi  adjoining  New  Orleans.  Portions  of  it  had  been  cut  up  into 
lots  and  formed  the  village  of  St.  Mary.  Meantime  an  alluvial  deposit 
or  river  beach  had  begun  to  form  along  the  levee  of  the  Gravier  plan- 
tation and  was  used  as  a  boat  landing  by  the  citizens  of  St.  Mary, 
though  the  batture,  under  the  law,  still  formed  a  part  of  the  Gravier 


68  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

estate.  This  estate  was  purchased  in  1808  by  Edward  Livingston,  oi 
New  York,  who  immediately  began  improvements  on  the  batture  for 
his  own  private  ends.  The  people  raised  a  great  outcry,  but  Livingston 
obtained  a  favorable  verdict  and  proceeded  with  his  improvements. 
Finally,  however,  the  Territorial  Court,  in  1809,  decided  to  appeal  to 
President  Jefferson,  on  the  ground  that  the  batture  was  public  property 
under  a  French  law  which  gave  alluvions  to  the  government.  By 
Jefferson's  orders,  he  having  a  private  grudge  against  Livingston,  the 
latter  was  dispossessed  of  the  batture.  Livingston  immediately  brought 
suit  against  Jefferson  and  the  United  States  Marshal.  The  suit  against 
the  President  was  not  allowed,  but  the  Supreme  Court  decided  that  the 
batture  be  restored  to  Livingston. 

Bay  Psalm  Book,  the  first  book  (except  an  almanac)  printed  in 
the  English-speaking  parts  of  America,  was  published  at  Cambridge 
in  1640. 

Bay  State,  a  name  given  to  Massachusetts,  the  early  title  of  which 
was  "  The  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay." 

Bayard,  James  A.  (1767-1815),  born  in  Philadelphia,  settled  in 
Delaware  as  a  lawyer.  He  represented  Delaware  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives from  1797  to  1803,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1805  to  1813. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the  Federalists  in  Congress,  and  in  1801 
had  a  principal  part  in  persuading  the  other  Federalist  Congressmen  to 
vote  for  Jefferson  rather  than  Burr  when  the  election  of  a  President  fell 
to  them.  He  was  one  of  the  five  American  negotiators  who  concluded 
in  18 14  the  Treaty  of  Ghent.  His  sons  and  grandson  represented  Dela- 
ware in  the  Senate  from  1836  to  1845,  and  from  1851  to  1885. 

Bayard,  Thomas  F.  (grandson  of  James  A.),  born  in  Delaware  in 
1828,  practiced  law  in  Philadelphia  and  Wilmington  from  185 1  to  1869. 
From  1869  to  1885  he  was  Senator  from  Delaware,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  able  and  prominent  of  the  Democratic  Senators.  In  1877  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission  which  decided  the  disputed 
Hayes-Tilden  election.  In  1881  he  was  president  pro  tempore  of  the 
Senate.  In  1880  and  again  in  1884  he  had  many  votes  in  convention 
as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency.  In  1885  President  Cleveland  ap- 
pointed him  Secretary  of  State,  in  which  office  he  served  with  credit 
till  1889,  pursuing  constantly  a  pacific  policy  toward  foreign  nations. 
In  1893,  when  the  grade  of  ambassador  was  for  the  first  time  established 
in  the  American  diplomatic  service,  he  was  appointed  our  representative 
in  England  with  that  title,  and  was  the  first  to  bear  it.     Died  1898. 

Bayatd  vs.  Singleton,  North  Carolina.    This  was  a  suit  for 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  69 

the  recovery  of  certain  property,  tried  before  the  Court  of  Appeals  of 
North  Carolina  in  1787.  The  property  in  question  had  been  confiscated 
and  sold  to  the  defendant  under  an  act  of  the  Legislature  passed  during 
the  Revolution,  authorizing  the  confiscation  of  property  belonging  to 
an  alien.  Counsel  for  the  defendant  moved  the  suit  be  dismissed  in  ac- 
cordance with  an  act  of  the  Legislature  of  1785,  which  "required  the 
courts  in  all  cases  where  the  defendant  makes  affidavit  that  he  holds  the 
disputed  property  under  a  sale  from  a  commissioner  of  forfeited  estates, 
to  dismiss  the  case  on  motion."  This  the  court  refused  emphatically 
and  Judge  Ashe  boldly  pronounced  that  act  of  Legislature  "  unconstitu- 
tional and  void."  Judgment  was,  however,  found  for  the  defendant  on 
the  ground  that  aliens  cannot  hold  land,  and  if  they  purchase,  the  land  is 
forfeited  to  the  sovereign.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  instances  of  a 
court's  pronouncing  upon  the  constitutionality  of  an  act  of  the  Legisla- 
ture.    Ashe's  decision  is  therefore  important. 

Bayonne  Decree,  a  decree  issued  on  April  17,  1808,  by  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon,  in  the  course  of  his  attempts  to  reduce  England  to 
terms  by  destroying  the  commerce  of  neutral  powers  like  the  United 
States.  On  pretext  of  falling  in  with  the  embargo  policy  of  the  Ameri- 
can government,  he  ordered  that  all  American  vessels  which  should 
enter  the  ports  of  France,  Italy  and  the  Hanse  Towns  should  be  seized, 
• '  because  no  vessels  of  the  United  States  can  now  navigate  the  seas 
without  violating  the  law  of  the  said  States." 

Bayou  Teche  Expedition,  an  expedition  sent  up  the  Bayou 
Teche  by  General  Banks  in  April,  1863.  It  completed  the  conquest  of 
all  Louisiana  west  of  New  Orleans  and  south  of  the  Red  River. 

Bean's  Station,  Tenn.  On  December  14,  1863,  after  Longstreet 
had  raised  the  siege  of  Knoxville,  4,000  Union  cavalry  under  Shackel- 
ford here  fought  Longstreet' s  cavalry  under  Gracie. 

Bear  Flagf  War,  an  insurrection  against  the  Mexican  government 
in  California,  raised  in  June,  1846,  by  a  small  body  of  settlers  from  the 
United  States.  The  insurrection  is  supposed  to  have  been  fomented  by 
Captain  John  C.  Fremont,  then  in  California  with  a  small  force  of  United 
States  troops.  A  dozen  Americans  seized  some  government  horses,  and 
then,  reinforced  by  others,  seized  Sonoma,  and  raised  a  flag  bearing  the 
figure  of  a  bear.  A  republic  was  proclaimed.  A  force  of  the  Cali- 
fornian  government  was  defeated.  Captain  Fremont  joined  the  revolu- 
tionary forces  with  his  troops.  In  July,  the  Mexican  War  having  begun, 
Sloat  raised  the  American  flag  at  Monterey,  and  the  Bear  Flag  War  be- 
came merged  in  the  American  operations  for  the  conquest  of  California* 


/ 


70  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Beaufort,  S.  C,  was  occupied  by  the  Federal  forces  on  December 
6,  1861,  having  been  abandoned  by  the  Confederates  after  the  naval 
fight  at  Hilton  Head. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  A.  C.  de  (1 732-1 799),  the  brilliant  author 
of  the  "Barbier  de  Seville,"  and  the  "Mariage  de  Figaro,"  rendered 
highly  valuable  services  to  the  American  cause  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  persuading  the  French  government  to  send  the  Americans  large 
amounts  of  money,  arms  and  ammunition,  and  extensively  using  his 
own  credit  in  their  behalf.  The  debt  of  the  American  government  to 
him  was  never  discharged. 

Beauregard,  P.  Gustave  T.  (1818-1893),  born  in  Louisiana,  was 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  was  employed  in  the  engineer 
service  of  the  United  States  until  1861,  when  he  resigned  and  entered 
that  of  the  seceded  States.  Placed  in  command  of  the  defenses  of 
Charleston,  he  opened  fire  on  Fort  Sumter  on  April  12,  1861.  With 
General  J.  B.  Johnston  he  won  the  victory  of  Bull  Run  on  July  21.  In 
the  spring  of  1862  he  was  ordered  to  Tennessee.  When  General  A.  S. 
Johnston  was  killed  at  Shiloh  Beauregard  succeeded  him  in  the  com- 
mand, but  was  forced  to  retire,  and  subsequently  to  evacuate  Corinth. 
From  September,  1862,  to  April,  1864,  he  defended  Charleston  against 
General  Gillmore  and  Admirals  Dupont  and  Dahlgren.  In  May,  1864, 
he  aided  Lee  at  Petersburg  ;  in  the  autumn  he  aided  in  the  vain  attempt 
of  the  Confederates  to  stop  Sherman's  march  through  Georgia.  He 
surrendered  with  Johnston  in  April,  1865.  He  was  afterward  manager 
of  the  Louisiana  State  lottery  until  his  death  in  1894. 

Beaver  Creek,  Md.,  scene  of  a  skirmish  on  July  10,  1863,  when, 
on  General  Lee's  retreat  from  Gettysburg,  Sedgwick's  corps  came  upon 
his  rear  guard. 

Beaver  Dam,  Upper  Canada.  At  the  end  of  Dearborn's  cam- 
paign, Colonel  Boerstler,  with  a  force  of  540,  sent  out  from  Niagara  to 
Beaver  Dam,  was  defeated  and  forced  to  surrender  by  a  British  and 
Indian  force  of  260,  June  24,  1813. 

Beaver  Dam  Creek,  Va.  In  the  "seven  days'"  fighting  after 
Fair  Oaks,  General  A.  P.  Hill's  corps,  while  waiting  for  the  arrival  of 
Jackson,  attacked  McCall's  division  of  McClellan's  army  in  a  strong 
position  at  Beaver  Dam  Creek,  June  26,  1862,  and  were  repulsed  with 
heavy  loss. 

Beeeher,  Henry  Ward  (1813-1887),  son  of  the  eminent  Rev.  Dr. 
Lyman  Beeeher,  and  from  1847  to  his  death  pastor  of  a  great  congrega- 
tion in  Brooklyn,  had  always  an  active  part  in  public  affairs.     In  1863 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  71 

he  made  many  speeches  in  England,  endeavoring  to  influence  English 
public  opinion  in  favor  of  the  Northern  cause  in  the  Civil  War.  A  civil 
action  for  $100,000  was  brought  against  Mr.  Beecherby  Theodore  Tilton 
for  alienating  his  wife's  affections,  and  after  a  trial  lasting  six  months 
( 1875-6)  the  jury  deliberated  for  a  week  without  being  able  to  arrive  at 
a  verdict.  The  trial  created  great  interest,  especially  among  religious 
persons,  and  the  case  is  regarded  as  being  one  of  the  most  important  of 
its  kind  ever  tried  in  American  courts. 

Behaim,  Martin  ( 1459- 1 506),  a  Nuremberg  cosmographer,  resided 
in  Lisbon  and  Fayal  from  1480  to  1490,  was  a  friend  of  Columbus,  and 
shared  his  views  as  to  the  possibility  of  reaching  land  by  sailing  west- 
ward. A  globe  which  he  constructed  after  returning  to  Nuremberg  is  a 
famous  and  valuable  record  of  geographical  knowledge. 

Behring  Sea  Question.  Soon  after  the  acquisition  of  Alaska  by 
the  United  States  the  Pribylov  Islands,  which  are  the  breeding-grounds 
of  the  fur  seal,  were  leased  to  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  who 
were  to  have  a  monopoly  of  seal-killing,  under  stringent  regulations  de- 
signed to  prevent  the  extermination  of  the  seals.  In  spite  of  the  vigilance 
of  the  government  in  guarding  the  islands,  depredations  increased, 
American  and  Canadian  vessels  pursuing  the  seals  upon  the  open  sea. 
In  1886  the  American  government  set  up  the  claim  that  Behring  Sea 
was  mare  clausum  and  asserted  its  jurisdiction  over  the  eastern  half  of 
it.  Russia  had  purported  to  grant  such  rights  of  jurisdiction  when 
ceding  Alaska  in  1867,  yet  in  1822  the  United  States  had  protested 
against  Russia's  claim  to  have  rights  of  sovereignty  over  the  sea,  out- 
side the  usual  three-mile  limit  of  territorial  jurisdiction.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  new  doctrine,  many  seizures  of  Canadian  and  American 
sealers  were  made  by  a  government  vessel.  Great  Britain  claimed 
damages.  After  much  negotiation,  mainly  between  Secretary  Blaine 
and  Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,  it  was  agreed  to  submit  to  arbitration  the 
questions  of  the  rights  of  the  United  States  in  Behring  Sea  and  of  the 
regulations  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  seals  if  it  were  decided 
that  the  United  States  had  not  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  matter. 
Two  arbitrators  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  United  States,  two  by  Great 
Britain,  and  one  each  by  the  President  of  the  French  Republic,  the 
King  of  Italy  and  the  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  The  arbitrators 
appointed  by  these  respectively  were  :  Justice  John  M.  Harlan  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  Senator  John  T.  Morgan,  Lord  Hannen,  Sir  John  S.  D. 
Thompson,  Baron  de  Courcel,  the  Marquis  Emilio  Visconti-Venosta, 
and  Gregers  \V.  W.  Gram.  The  tribunal  began  its  sessions  at  Paris  on 
March  23,  1893,  and  rendered  its  decision  on  August  15.     It  decided 


72  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

against  the  American  claim  to  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  any  sort  over  the 
waters  of  Behring  Sea  outside  the  three-mile  territorial  limit,  established 
a  close  season  for  seals  in  those  waters  from  May  i  to  July  31,  and  for- 
bade pelagic  sealing  within  sixty  miles  of  the  Pribylov  Islands,  sealing 
in  steam  vessels  or  with  fire-arms.  These  regulations  were  to  be  carried 
out  by  the  British  and  American  governments  concurrently. 

Belgium.  Commercial  regulations  were  effected  by  the  United 
iStates  with  Belgium  by  the  treaty  of  1845,  the  convention  of  1858  and 
that  of  1863,  the  treaty  of  July  20,  1863,  the  treaty  of  1875,  and  the  con- 
vention of  1884.  Naturalization  rights  were  recognized  by  the  conven- 
tion of  November  16,  1868,  and  consular  rights  by  the  conventions  of 
December  5,  1868,  and  of  March  9,  1880.  The  extradition  of  criminals 
was  regulated  by  the  conventions  of  1874  and  1882. 

Belknap,  William  W.  (iS29-iS9o),of  Iowa,  became  major-general 
in  the  Civil  War.  From  1869  to  1876  he  wras  Secretary  of  War  in  Pres- 
ident Grant's  Cabinet.  He  was  impeached  in  1876  for  receiving  bribes, 
but  resigned  a  few  hours  before  the  resolution  for  impeachment  passed 
the  House.  He  then  claimed  not  to  be  impeachable,  and  enough  Sena- 
tors took  this  view  to  prevent  his  conviction. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  born  in  Scotland  in  1847,  physicist, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1872.  Inventor  of  the  telephone,  which  he 
first  exhibited  publicly  at  Philadelphia  in  1876. 

Bell,  John  (1797- .1869),  was  born  at  Nashville,  and  graduated  at  the 
university  of  that  city.  He  had  been  a  lawyer  and  State  Senator  before 
he  entered  the  House  of  Representatives  as  member  from  Tennessee  in 
iS27.  He  served  there  until  1841,  being  Speaker  in  1835-37.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Whig  party.  In  1841  he  was  Secretary  of 
War,  and  in  1847-59  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee.  When  the 
Conservatives,  under  the  name  of  the  Constitutional  Union  party,  de- 
cided to  make  a  campaign  for  the  Presidency  in  i860,  Bell  was  their 
candidate,  and  the  Bell  and  Everett  ticket  received  the  electoral  votes  of 
three  States. 

Bellamy,  Udward  (1850-1898),  of  Massachusetts,  for  several  years 
was  assistant  editor  of  the  Springfield  Union.  Was  a  contributor  to  va- 
rious magazines,  and  the  author  of  "  Looking  Backward  "  and  "  Equal- 
ity," which  made  him  famous. 

Belle  Isle,  a  small  island  in  the  James  River,  opposite  Richmond, 
converted  by  the  Confederates  into  a  place  of  confinement  for  Union 
prisoners,  where  as  many  as  11,000  captives  were  kept  a  short  while 
in  1863. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  73 

Belligerent  Rights  were  accorded  to  the  Confederacy  by  a  proc- 
lamation issued  by  the  Queen  of  Great  Britain  recognizing  the  existence 
of  war  between  the  United  States  and  the  so-called  Confederate  States, 
and  the  right  of  each  to  the  exercise  of  belligerent  powers  on  the  ocean, 
but  not  recognizing  the  national  independence  of  the  latter,  and  en- 
joining neutrality  on  her  own  subjects.  Similar  recognitions  of  bel- 
ligerent rights  were  made  by  France  and  the  other  chief  commercial 
powers  of  Europe,  and  by  Brazil. 

Bellomont,  Earl  of  (Richard  Coote)  (1636-1701),  was  an 
English  politician,  appointed  by  William  III.  Governor  of  New  York 
and  Massachusetts  in  1695.  He  arrived  in  1698,  and  addressed  himself 
to  the  suppression  of  piracy  and  illegal  trade,  both  rife  in  the  colonies. 
The  capture  of  the  notorious  pirate  Captain  Kidd  was  accomplished 
during  his  administration. 

Bellows,  Henry  W.  (1814-1882),  of  New  York,  clergyman,  became 
pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  (Unitarian)  Church  of  New  York 
City  in  1839.  In  the  Civil  War  he  was  president  of  the  U.  S.  Sanitary 
Commission. 

Belmont,  August  (1816-1890),  of  New  York,  financier,  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1837.  Was  appointed  Minister  to  Holland  in  1854. 
Was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  fine  arts. 

Belmont,  Mo.,  a  small  town  occupied  by  a  detachment  of  Con- 
federates from  General  Polk's  army.  It  was  destroyed,  and  the  Con- 
federates driven  to  the  Mississippi  River  by  General  Grant,  November  7, 
1861. 

Bemis  Heights.     (See  Sarotaga.) 

Benjamin,  Judah  P.  (1811-1884),  was  born  at  St.  Croix,  in  the 
West  Indies,  of  English  Hebrew  descent.  He  was  educated  at  Yale, 
and  as  a  lawyer  became  the  head  of  the  Louisiana  bar.  He  was  Whig 
U.  S.  Senator  from  that  State,  1853-61.  He  sided  with  the  Confederates, 
and  entered  President  Davis'  Cabinet,  serving  in  turn  as  Attorney- 
General,  Secretary  of  War,  and  Secretary  of  State.  On  the  collapse  of 
the  Confederacy  he  made  his  escape  to  England,  and  was  soon  equally 
famous  for  his  grasp  of  English  law.  He  became  a  Queen's  Counsel, 
and  died  in  Paris. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon  (1795-1872),  of  New  York,  journalist, 
came  to  America  in  1819  ;  established  the  Herald  in  1835.  He  first 
introduced  the  "  Money  Article,"  the  employment  of  regular  European 
correspondents,   and  the  systematic  sale  by  newsboys.     During  the 


74  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Civil  War  he  employed  sixty-three  war  correspondents.     The  Herald 
sometimes  yielded  him  an  income  of  $100,000  a  year. 

Bennington,  Battle  of,  August  16, 1777.  As  he  marched  southward 
from  Canada,  General  Burgoyne  sent  500  Germans  under  Colonel  Baum 
to  seize  the  American  stores  at  Bennington.  Not  daring  to  take  the 
offensive  Baum  awaited  attack  on  the  bank  of  a  stream.  The  Americans 
under  Stark  outnumbered  the  British  two  to  one,  but  were  inferior  in 
drill  and  equipment.  Half  their  force,  whom  Baum  took  to  be  Tories, 
got  to  a  position  in  his  rear.  Being  attacked  both  in  front  and  in  rear, 
the  Germans  were  routed  completely.  Just  at  that  moment  500  German 
reinforcements  came,  but  this  was  offset  by  the  appearance  of  500 
fresh  men  under  Colonel  Warner.  Only  sixty  or  seventy  Germans 
reached  camp.  Out  of  their  thousand  207  were  killed  and  700  captured. 
The  American  loss  was  fourteen  killed  and  forty-two  wounded. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart  (1782-1858),  was  born  in  North  Carolina, 
and  settled  early  in  Tennessee.  He  became  a  lawyer  and  a  member  of 
the  Legislature  and  acquired  the  title  of  colonel  in  the  War  of  181 2. 
Though  an  ardent  supporter  of  Jackson  in  later  times,  he  had  a  personal 
encounter  with  him  in  Nashville  in  1813.  He  now  became  a  journalist 
in  Missouri,  and  served  that  State  uninterruptedly  as  U.  S.  Senator  from 
1821  to  1851.  During  this  long  period  he  was  second  in  prominence 
only  to  the  famous  trio,  Clay,  Calhoun  and  Webster.  He  played  a 
distinguished  part  in  securing  favorable  land  laws,  in  opening  the  West 
and  in  furthering  post-roads.  His  conservatism  in  finance  earned  for 
him  the  title  of  "  Old  Bullion."  He  championed  Jackson  during  the 
latter' s  Presidency,  and  was  active  in  procuring  the  passage  of  the 
Expunging  Resolutions  (which  see) .  Later  he  was  a  vigorous  oppo- 
nent of  Calhoun.  He  was  in  1853-55  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  but  was  defeated  as  candidate  for  Governor  of  Missouri 
in  1856.  He  published  in  1854-56  his  * '  Thirty  Years'  View, ' '  or  historical 
memoirs  ;  his  ' '  Abridgment  of  the  Debates  of  Congress  ' '  was  published 
in  fifteen  volumes. 

Bentonville,  N.  C.  Here,  during  his  march  from  Savannah 
through  the  Carolinas,  Sherman,  at  the  head  of  65,000  National  troops, 
encountered  24,000  Confederates  under  Johnston.  A  battle  took  place 
March  18,  1865,  Johnston  having  come  up  in  great  haste  from  Smithfield, 
intending  to  surprise  Sherman.  The  latter,  however,  was  ready  for 
him  and  Johnston  was  thrown  on  the  defensive  near  Mill  Creek. 
Johnston  was  partially  defeated  and  retreated  to  Smithfield. 

Bering,  or  Bearing,  Vitus  (1680-1741),  Danish  navigator  in  the. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  75 

Russian  service.     In  1728  Peter  the  Great  sent  him  on  an  expedition  in 
the  course  of  which  he  discovered  the  strait  which  bears  his  name. 

Berkeley,  George  (1684-1753),  the  celebrated  philosopher,  was 
dean  of  Derry  in  Ireland.  In  his  advocacy  of  education  in  the  Bermu- 
das, he  sailed  thither,  and  reached  Newport  en  route  in  1729.  His 
plaus  miscarried,  but  he  remained  in  Newport  until  1731,  returning 
then  to  Great  Britain,  where  he  became  bishop  of  Cloyne.  His  interest 
in  American  matters  was  evinced  by  his  famous  lines,  "Westward  the 
course  of  empire,"  etc.,  and  more  practically  by  the  gift  to  Yale  of  his 
farm  near  Newport,  as  well  as  by  gifts  of  books  to  Yale  and  Harvard. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William  (about  1610-1677),  was  an  Englbh  cour- 
tier, who  in  1642  was  appointed  Governor  of  Virginia.  He  continued 
in  this  office,  with  the  exception  of  an  intermission  during  the  Crom- 
wellian  regime,  until  1677.  His  gloating  remark  over  the  colony's 
backward  condition  in  education  and  a  free  press  is  well  known,  and 
his  oppression  evoked  a  caustic  comment  even  from  Charles  II.  His 
inefficiency  in  conducting  the  relations  with  the  Indians  led  to  an 
armed  uprising  in  1676  under  Nathaniel  Bacon.  This  was  suppressed 
after  Bacon's  death,  but  Berkeley  was  soon  recalled. 

Berlin  Decree,  The,  was  issued  by  Napoleon  November  21,  1806, 
and  declared  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade.  It  forbade 
commerce  with  them  and  trade  in  their  merchandise  and  declared  all 
merchandise  belonging  to  Englishmen  or  transported  from  England 
lawful  prize.  Its  effect  was  to  inflict  great  injury  on  the  American 
carrying  trade. 

Bermuda  Hundred,  Va.,  a  position  selected  by  Butler,  who,  in 
1864,  commanded  the  Army  of  the  James,  numbering  about  25,000  Fed- 
erals, where  he  might  intrench  himself  and  await  Grant's  arrival.  In 
the  vicinity  of  this  position  there  was  constant  fighting  between  Butler's 
troops  and  those  of  the  Confederate  Beauregard,  whose  forces  were 
20,000  strong.  The  fighting  continued  from  May  16  to  30.  On  the 
sixteenth  Heckman's  brigade  was  destroyed  by  the  Confederates,  who 
were  then  pushing  on  to  Bermuda  Hundred,  when  Ames  and  Gillmore 
came  up  and  Beauregard's  plans  miscarried.  On  the  nineteenth  the 
Confederates  assaulted  the  Federal  rifle  pits  under  Ames  and  Terry,  but 
without  success.  Skirmishing  continued  until  the  thirtieth,  when  the 
Confederates  desisted.  Bermuda  Hundred  was  a  valuable  position, 
since  it  was  very  near  both  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Bernard,  Sir  Francis  (1714-1779),  royal  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, was  appointed  in  1760  and  removed  in  1769  because  of  his  incessant 


76  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY 

conflicts  with  the  assembly.  In  1768  he  caused  British  troops  to  be 
quartered  in  Boston. 

Bernard,  Simon  (1779- 1836),  French  soldier  and  chief  engineer 
in  the  U.  S.  Army,  came  to  the  United  States  with  Lafayette  in 
1824.  His  principal  work  was  the  planning  and  construction  of 
Fortress  Monroe. 

Berrien,  John  McPherson  (1781-1856),  of  Georgia,  statesman, 
was  Judge  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Georgia  from  1810  to  1821, 
"U.  S.  Senator  from  1825  to  1829  and  from  1840  to  1852.  Was  At- 
torney-General under  Jackson  from  1829  to  1831,  when  he  resigned. 

Beveridge,  Albert  J.,  see  appendix,  page  475. 

Beverly's  Ford,  Va.,  scene  of  a  sharp  cavalry  fight  during  the 
Civil  War,  between  Buford,  Pleasanton  and  Gregg,  commanding 
9,000  Federals,  and  Stuart  leading  12,000  Confederates.  Hooker 
had  sent  Pleasanton  to  find  Stuart,  who  was  said  to  be  near 
Beverly's  Ford.  Pleasanton  planned  to  surprise  the  Confederates, 
but  his  plan  miscarried.  Stuart  was  fully  prepared  for  him.  Plea- 
sonton  was  badly  beaten. 

Bible  Revision.  On  the  invitation  of  the  British  committee 
for  the  revision  of  the  Bible,  a  committee  of  United  States  scholars 
and  divines  was  organized  in  1871  and  began  active  work  in  Oc- 
tober, 1872.  This  committee  was  composed  of  twenty-seven  mem- 
bers, who  met  each  month  in  the  Bible  House,  New  York.  Their 
intention  was  to  adapt  King  James'  version  to  the  present  state  of 
the  language.  The  revised  New  Testament  was  published  in  1887. 
The  revised  Old  Testament  appeared  in  1885. 

Bible  Societies.  The  first  Bible  Society  of  this  country  was 
founded  at  Philadelphia  in  1808.  It  was  quickly  followed  by  others 
at  Hartford,  Boston,  New  York  and  Princeton.  May  11,  1816,  the 
American  Bible  Society  was  organized  at  New  York  by  a  con- 
vention of  representatives  from  thirty-five  smaller  societies,  which 
felt  the  need  of  united  and  centralized  effort.  Nearly  every  denomi- 
nation, except  the  Roman  Catholic,  was  represented.  Sectarian 
jealousy  and  party  prejudice  were  laid  aside  in  order  to  insure 
combined  endeavors  in  promoting  "a  wider  circulation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  without  note  or  comment."  The  American  Foreign 
Bible  Society  was  established  in  1836  by  the  Baptist  denomination, 
which  withdrew  from  the  American  Society  because  of  some  dis- 
agreement. The  total  issues  of  the  American  Bible  Society  from 
1816  to  1892  have  been  S5»53i>oo8. 

Biddle,  Clement  (1740-1814),  of  Pennsylvania,  "Quaker  Soldier," 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  77 

was  an  officer  in  the  Continental  Army  from  1776  to  1780  and  U.  S« 
Marshal  during  the  Whiskey  Rebellion. 

Biddle,  James  (1783-1848),  naval  officer,  in  the  War  of  1812,  in 
command  of  the  "Hornet,"  captured  the  "Penguin."  In  1817  he 
took  possession  of  Oregon  for  the  United  States. 

Biddle,  Nicholas  (1750-177S),  of  Philadelphia,  naval  officer,  one  of 
the  first  captains  appointed  by  Congress  in  1775.  In  1778,  while  en- 
gaging the  "  Yarmouth,"  British,  64  guns,  his  ship,  the  "  Randolph," 
32  guns,  blew  up. 

Biddle,  Nicholas  (1786-1844),  after  leaving  Princeton  entered  the 
diplomatic  service,  and  afterward  edited  the  magazine,  the  Portfolio. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature,  and  became  a  gov- 
ernment director  of  the  United  States  Bank  and  its  president.  In  this 
latter  position  he  was  a  central  figure  in  the  fierce  struggle  which 
Jackson  waged  with  the  bank.     He  resigned  the  presidency  in  1839. 

Bienville,  Sieur  de  (Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne)  (1680-1765),  was 
a  member  of  a  noted  French  family  of  colonizers.  He  accompanied  his 
brother  Iberville  to  the  Mississippi  region,  and  in  1701  assumed  the 
direction  of  the  colony  of  Louisiana.  In  17 13  he  was  appointed  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of  the  colony,  and  in  1718  Governor,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  founded  New  Orleans.  He  was  removed  in  1720,  but  was  re- 
appointed in  1733,  returning  to  France  in  1743. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  born  in  Germany  in  1830,  painter,  was  brought 
to  the  United  States  in  1831.  Made  extended  tours  in  Colorado  and 
California,  obtaining  there  materials  for  his  most  celebrated  pictures. 

Big  Bethel,  Va.  Here  an  unsuccessful  attempt,  directed  by  Gen- 
eral Butler,  was  made  by  General  Pierce,  with  four  regiments,  to  dis- 
lodge outposts  of  Magruder's  Confederate  encampment  at  Yorktown, 
June  10,  1861.  The  Federal  regiments,  under  Townsend  and  Bendix, 
en  route  for  the  Big  Bethel  camp,  mistook  each  other  for  the  enemy,1 
and  fired.  This  created  great  confusion.  Pierce  arrived  and  pushed  on 
to  the  Confederate  earthwork  on  Back  River,  destroying  the  camp  at 
Little  Bethel.  The  Federal  troops  crossed  Back  River  and  charged  the 
earthwork,  but  were  repulsed  with  considerable  loss,  Major  Theodore 
Winthrop  losing  his  life. 

Big  Black  River,  Miss.  In  this  battle,  which  took  place  May  16, 
1863,  during  Grant's  pursuit  of  Pemberton  toward  Vicksburg,  the  Con- 
federates were  defeated,  and  lost  heavily  both  in  killed  and  captured. 
McClernand,  swiftly  following  the  retreating  Confederates,  came  upon 


78  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

them  drawn  up  on  both  sides  of  the  Big  Black  River.  McClernand  led 
10,000  Federals, Pemberton  8,000  Confederates,  his  main  command  having 
gone  on  toward  Vicksburg.  McClernand  began  the  fight.  He  was  for 
a  time  unsuccessful,  but  Lawler,  discovering  a  weak  spot  in  the  Con- 
federate line,  immediately  took  advantage  of  it  and  charged  impetu- 
ously.    The  Confederates  were  routed. 

Biglow,  John,  born  in  1817,  of  New  York,  in  1849  became,  with 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  joint  owner  of  the  Evening  Post,  and  was  man- 
aging editor  till  1861,  when  he  went  to  Paris  as  U.  S.  Consul,  and  was 
Minister  to  France  from  1865  to  1867,  when  he  became  Secretary  of 
State  of  New  York.  He  is  trustee  under  the  will  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden 
and  his  literary  executor.  His  chief  literary  work  was  the  editing  of 
the  full  text  of  Franklin's  Autobiography. 

"Biglow  Papers,"  two  series  of  extraordinarily  brilliant. political 
satires  written  by  James  Russell  l,owell.  The  first,  satirizing  the 
Mexican  War  and  contemporary  politics,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
New  England  Abolitionists,  appeared  (1846-1848)  in  the  Boston  Courier 
and  the  National  Anti-Slavery  Standard.  The  second,  satirizing  the 
South  and  contemporary  politics  during  the  period  of  Civil  War  and 
reconstruction,  appeared  (1861-1866)  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  The 
papers  are  attributed  to  Hosea  Biglow,  a  typical  young  Yankee  farmer, 
Rev.  Homer  Wilbur,  a  typical  old-school  New  England  clergyman,  and 
Birdofredum  Sawin,  a  character  intended  to  represent  the  non-Puritan 
element  in  the  New  England  democracy. 

Billeting  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Parliament  in  1765  directing 
colonial  legislatures  to  make  specific  contributions  toward  the  support 
of  an  army.  Bernard,  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  caused  it  to  be 
printed  in  the  colony  laws.  It  was  resisted  in  New  York  and  in  South 
Carolina. 

Bills  of  Credit.  This  was  the  term  employed  in  the  eighteenth 
century  to  indicate  paper  money  issued  by  any  government,  and  made 
a  legal  tender  for  debts.  The  Constitution  of  1787  forbids  any  State  to 
issue  bills  of  credit,  or  to  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  a  legal 
tender.  This  was  done  because  of  the  discreditable  and  disastrous 
over-issues  by  the  States  during  the  twelve  years  preceding.  A  similar 
prohibition  upon  the  Federal  government  was  discussed  but  not  incor- 
porated in  the  Constitution.  Hence,  in  1862,  the  Federal  government 
issued  ' '  greenbacks  ' '  which  were  to  be  a  legal  tender.  (See  ' '  Iyegal 
Tender  Cases.") 

Bills  of  Rights.    The  first  in  America  was  the  Declaration  of  Rights 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  79 

which  accompanied  the  Virginia  Constitution  of  1776.  It  was  the  work 
of  Colonel  George  Mason,  and  was  largely  based  on  the  English  Bill  of 
Rights  of  1688.  Its  phraseology  was  extensively  followed  in  the 
constitutions  of  other  States,  most  of  which  contained  bills  of  rights, 
defining  the  rights  of  the  individual  citizen  as  over  against  his  gov- 
ernment. The  Constitution  of  1787  was  strongly  criticised  for  not  in- 
cluding such  a  set  of  statements,  and  their  absence  made  its  ratification 
difficult.  Accordingly  the  Federalists,  in  the  First  Congress,  as  they 
had  promised,  carried  through  amendments  of  this  nature,  and  these 
now  stand  as  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitution. 

Biloxi,  Miss,  first  settlement  made  in  what  is  now  Mississippi  by 
white  men,  was  founded  in  1699  by  Pierre  Lemoyne  d'Iberville. 

Bingham,  John  A.,  born  in  1815,  of  Ohio,  lawyer,  was  a  Republican 
member  of  Congress  from  1855  to  1863  and  from  1865  to  1873,  and  sat  as 
judge-advocate  at  the  trial  of  President  Lincoln's  assassins. 

Binney,  Horace  (1780-1875),  of  Philadelphia,  and  an  acknowledged 
leader  of  its  bar.  Such  of  his  arguments  as  are  in  print  are  the  admira- 
tion of  the  legal  profession,  not  only  in  this  country,  but  in  Great 
Britain,  notably  that  in  the  case  of  Bidal  vs.  Girard's  Executors.  He 
powerfully  supported  President  Lincoln  by  his  pamphlets  on  the  right 
to  suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 

Birney,  David  B.  (1825-1864),  of  Pennsylvania,  soldier  in  the  Civil 
War,  became  major-general  and  commanded  the  Third  Corps  at  Gettys- 
burg after  General  Sickles  was  wounded. 

Birney,  James  Gillespie  (1 792-1857),  was  a  graduate  of  Princeton, 
and  a  lawyer  and  politician  in  Kentucky.  He  became  enthusiastically 
devoted  to  the  Abolitionist  cause,  and  was  editor  of  the  Philanthropist. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  National  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  when  in 
1840  and  1844  the  Abolitionists,  as  the  Liberty  party,  put  a  ticket  in  the 
field,  he  was  their  candidate  for  President. 

Bishops.  Few  things  more  exasperated  the  colonists  than  the  scheme 
of  appointing  and  sending  out  a  bishop  from  England.  It  is  said  that 
there  was  a  project  of  making  Dean  Swift  bishop  of  the  American 
colonies.  In  177 1,  at  the  instance  of  the  clergy  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  the  plan  was  again  urged.  The  clergy  of  Virginia  generally 
assented.  But  throughout  America  the  dissenters  and  the  Episcopal 
laity  opposed.  After  the  Revolution  the  case  was  altered.  The  first 
Episcopal  bishop,  Samuel  Seabury,  of  Connecticut,  was  consecrated  by 
Scotch  non-juring  bishops  in  1784.     The  Methodists  began  to  use  the 


So  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

term  bishop  in  1787.     The  first  Catholic  bishop,  John  Carroll,  of  Bal- 
timore, was  consecrated  in  1790. 

Bissell,  Wilson  S.,  born  in  1847,  of  New  York,  lawyer,  in  1873 
became  a  member  of  the  law  firm  of  Bass,  Cleveland  &  Bissell  in  Buffalo, 
and  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  by  President  Cleveland  in  1893. 

Black,  James  (1823-1893),  of  Pennsylvania,  reformer,  was  a  leader 
in  the  organization  of  the  Templars,  was  the  first  to  propose  a  distinct 
Temperance  party  and  in  1872  was  its  candidate  for  the  Presidency. 

Black,  Jeremiah.  S.  (1810-1883),  of  Pennsylvania,  jurist,  was  one 
of  the  Judges  of  its  Supreme  Court  from  185 1  to  1857,  became  Attorney- 
General  under  Buchanan,  serving  as  such  till  December,  i860,  when  he 
became  his  Secretary  of  State  and  exerted  himself  to  save  the  govern- 
ment from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  secessionists.  In  1861  and  1863 
he  was  reporter  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Black  Cockade,  a  badge  worn  first  by  the  American  soldiers  during 
the  Revolution,  and  later,  during  the  hostility  toward  France  occasioned 
by  the  X.  Y.  Z.  dispatches,  adopted  by  the  Federalists  as  a  patriotic 
emblem  and  as  a  rejoinder  to  the  tri-colored  cockade  worn  by  the 
Republicans  as  a  mark  of  affection  toward  France. 

"  Black  Friday,"  Friday,  September  19,  1873,  on  which,  with  a 
great  financial  crash  in  Wall  Street,  including  the  failure  of  Jay  Cooke 
&  Co.,  the  leading  American  bankers,  the  panic  of  1873  began.  Also, 
Sept.  24,  1869. 

Black  Hawk  War.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  with  the 
chiefs  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  July  15,  1830, 
their  land  east  of  the  Mississippi  was  ceded  to  the  whites.  Black  Hawk, 
a  prominent  chief,  refused  to  submit  to  the  treaty.  In  1831  he  made  an 
attack  upon  some  Illinois  villages,  but  was  driven  off  by  a  force  of 
militia  under  General  Gaines  in  June  of  that  year.  The  next  spring  he 
returned  with  a  strong  force  and  began  to  massacre  the  whites.  General 
Scott  marched  some  United  States  troops  against  him.  Black  Hawk 
was  defeated  at  the  Wisconsin  River  July  21,  1832,  by  General  Dodge, 
and  again,  August  2,  by  General  Atkinson  at  Bad  Axe  River.  This 
ended  the  war. 

Black  Rock  (near  Niagara),  was,  in  the  War  of  1812,  bombarded  by 
the  British  November  17,  1812.  The  barracks  were  fired,  valuable 
property  destroyed  and  a  magazine  exploded.  No  lives,  however,  were 
lost.  Next  year  Lieutenant  Colonel  Bisshopp,  with  400  men,  crossed 
the  Niagara  July  11,  1813,  to  capture  the  stores  and  shipyard  at  this 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  81 

place.  The  attack  at  first  was  successful,  but  the  Americans  rallied 
and  with  the  aid  of  friendly  Indians  drove  the  British  back  to 
their  boats  in  confusion,  with  the  loss  of  their  commander.  The  total 
British  loss  was  seventy  ;  the  Americans  lost  eight  men  and  a  large 
quantity  of  military  stores.  Later,  General  Riall,  with  1,000  British 
regulars  and  Indians,  crossed  the  Niagara,  December  30,  1813,  and 
attacked  the  Americans,  2,000  strong,  at  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo.  The 
American  militia  behaved  in  a  cowardly  manner  and  were  forced  back 
to  Buffalo,  which,  however,  was  at  once  abandoned.  The  village  was 
then  plundered  and  burned,  together  with  four  war- vessels.  This  ended 
the  measures  of  retaliation  for  the  burning  of  Newark. 

"Black  Warrior,"  an  American  merchant  vessel,  seized  and  con- 
fiscated by  Cuban  customs  officers  in  May,  1854.  This  seizure  was  used 
as  an  excuse  for  proposed  filibustering  expeditions  against  Cuba.  Spain, 
however,  made  compensation  for  the  seizure. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  C.  S.,  born  in  1838,  of  Kentucky,  served  in 
the  Confederate  Army  through  the  war,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1875  to  1885,  since  which  he  has  been  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  being 
last  chosen  by  the  Legislature  February,  1900. 

Blackfeet  Indians  received  their  name  after  their  separation  from 
the  Kena  Indians  and  migration  to  the  Missouri.  Those  in  the  United 
States  are  in  Montana,  and  have  often  been  at  war. 

Blackstock  Hill,  Battle  of,  November  20,  1780.  In  the  fall  of 
1780  the  patriots  of  South  Carolina  became  more  active.  At  Blackstock 
Hill  General  Sumter  defeated  Tarleton's  cavalry  after  a  sharp  en- 
counter.    The  disgrace  of  Fishing  Creek  was  thus  wiped  out. 

Blackstone,  William,  died  in  1675,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  pioneer,  was  the  first  settler  in  Boston  (1625).  His  laud 
became  the  famous  "  Common  "  ;  he  was  afterward  the  first  white  set- 
tler of  Rhode  Island. 

Bladensbtirg;,  Md.,  near  Washington,  laid  out  in  1742,  is  cele- 
brated as  the  site,  not  only  of  the  battle,  but  of  the  dueling-grouud 
where  many  famous  duels  growing  out  of  quarrels  in  Washington  were 
fought,  e.  g-.,  that  in  which  Barron  killed  Decatur  in  1820.  Toward  tlie 
latter  part  of  the  War  of  181 2  General  Ross  and  Admiral  Cockburn  wtth 
about  5,000  men  appeared  in  Chesapeake  Bay  to  attack  Washington. 
The  American  forces  fell  back  to  Bladensburg  (four  miles  from  Wash- 
ington) and  awaited  the  British.  The  Americans  numbered  about  7,090 
men,  but  were  scattered  and  untrained.  August  24,  1814,  the  British 
Vol.  V.— 6 


$2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

advanced  to  the  attack.  The  American  artillery  held  them  in  check  for  a 
time,  but  the  troops  rallied  and  pushed  forward.  The  Americans  fled 
in  wild  disorder  ;  the  confusion  spread  and  soon,  General  Winder,  the 
American  commander,  gave  orders  for  a  general  retreat.  By  this  battle 
Washington  was  exposed  to  capture.  The  American  loss  was  seventy- 
six  men  ;  the  British  more  than  500  killed  and  wounded. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie  (January  31,  1830— January  27,  1893),  was 
born  at  West  Brownsville,  Pa.  He  was  graduated  at  Washington  College 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1847,  and  became  a  teacher.  In  1854  he  settled  in 
Augusta,  Me.,  and  assumed  the  editorship  of  the  Kennebec  Journal. 
He  was  soon  a  power  in  State  journalism  and  politics,  was  elected  to 
the  Legislature  in  1858,  and  was  chairman  of  the  Republican  State 
Committee.  He  entered  Congress  as  a  Representative  from  Maine 
in  1863,  and  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  as  an  able  and  versatile 
debater  and  an  aggressive  party  leader.  These  qualities  with  his 
knowledge  of  parliamentary  law  made  him  Speaker  of  the  House 
for  three  terms,  1869-1875.  In  1876-1881  he  was  United  States  Senator. 
This  prominence  and  his  "  magnetic  "  character  brought  him  to  men's 
minds  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency.  In  1876  he  was  one  of  the 
two  leaders  for  the  Republican  prize  ;  in  1880,  while  beaten  himself  by 
the  persistency  of  the  Grant  advocates,  he  dictated  the  nomination  of 
Garfield,  and  entered  the  latter' s  Cabinet  in  March,  1881,  as  Secretary 
of  State.  His  interference  in  the  Chilian-Peruvian  imbroglio  is  a  matter 
of  history.  He  resigned  office  in  December,  1881,  soon  after  President 
Arthur's  accession.  In  1884  he  was  on  the  fourth  ballot  nominated  to 
the  Presidency,  and  between  his  advocates  and  those  of  Mr.  Cleveland 
there  ensued  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  exciting  personal  cam- 
paigns on  record.  His  reputation  had  been  assailed  before,  particularly 
from  his  alleged  connection  with  the  Little  Rock  Railroad  matter,  and 
a  formidable  section  of  the  Republican  party  bolted  his  candidacy.  So 
much  the  more  vigorous  was  the  support  of  the  many  friends  of  the 
"  Plumed  Knight."  The  defection  of  the  Mugwumps  and  the  singular 
alliterative  utterance  of  Mr.  Burchard  are  variously  assigned  as  the 
cause  of  his  loss  of  New  York  State  by  a  small  majority,  and  consequent 
loss  of  the  election  in  the  country  at  large.  In  1889  he  became  Secre- 
tury  of  State  in  President  Harrison's  Cabinet.  He  will  probably  be  best 
remembered  in  this  office  for  his  furtherance  of  the  Pan-American  con- 
ference and  advocacy  of  reciprocity.  He  suddenly  resigned  in  June, 
1892,  and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination. 
He  died  at  Washington.  His  political  reminiscences  and  comments  are 
given  in  his  "  Twenty  Years  in  Congress  "  (published  1884-1886). 

Blair,  Francis  Preston  (1791-1876),  was  a  prominent  politician 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  83 

for  half  a  century.  As  the  editor  of  the  Washington  Globe  he  wielded 
a  great  influence  in  the  Jacksonian  wing  of  the  Democratic  party.  After 
the  political  disintegration  caused  by  slavery,  he  became  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Republican  party,  but  avoided  advocating  a  radical 
policy.     Toward  the  close  of  his  life  he  acted  again  with  the  Democrats. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston  (1821-1875),  was  the  son  of  Francis  P. 
Blair,  He  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  after  which  he  practiced  law 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri  Legislature.  He  was  a  Republican 
Congressman  from  Missouri  in  1857-59  an(I  1861-63.  He  took  an 
important  part  in  saving  Missouri  for  the  Union  at  the  opening  of  the 
war,  and  was  afterward  distinguished  as  a  division  and  corps  com- 
mander in  the  Vicksburg  campaign  and  in  Sherman's  march  through 
Georgia  to  the  sea.  Joining  the  Democratic  part)r,  he  was  on  its  ticket 
with  Seymour  as  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1868. 
His  last  important  office  was  that  of  United  States  Senator  from  Mis- 
souri in  1871-73. 

Blair,  Henry  W.,  born  in  1834,  of  New  Hampshire,  Senator.  In 
the  Civil  War  he  became  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  twice  severely 
wounded  at  Port  Hudson.  He  was  a  Representative  in  Congress  from 
1875  to  1879,  and  U.  S.  Senator  from  1879  to  1891.  He  introduced  the 
so-called  "  Blair  School  Bill,"  which  twice  passed  the  Senate  but  failed 
in  the  House. 

Blair,  Montgomery  (1813-1883),  of  Maryland,  statesman,  served  in 
the  Seminole  War.  Was  Mayor  of  St.  Louis  in  1842,  and  Judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  of  Missouri  from  1843  to  1849,  but  removed  to 
Maryland  in  1852.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  by 
President  Lincoln.  His  resignation  was  accepted  in  1864,  after  which 
he  acted  with  the  Democratic  party. 

Blakeley,  Johnston  (1781-1814),  of  North  Carolina,  naval  officer, 
was  made  master-commander  in  1813  and  appointed  to  the  new  sloop 
"  Wasp,"  with  which,  in  1814,  he  captured  the  "  Reindeer,"  after  a  se- 
vere action  of  nineteen  minutes,  for  which  Congress  voted  him  a  gold 
medal.  After  capturing  several  more  vessels,  the  ' '  Wasp  ' '  foundered 
at  sea  with  all  on  board. 

Bland,  Richard  (1710-1776),  of  Virginia,  called  the  "  Antiquary,'* 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses  from  1745  till  the  Revolution, 
and  a  very  active  patriot,  and  in  1774  a  delegate  to  Congress. 

Bland,  Richard  P.,  born  in  1835,  was  a  lawyer  and  business  man 
and  came  into  prominence  as  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Missouri. 
Since  1873  he  has  been  steadily  a  member  of  the  Lower  House,  generally 


84  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

a  leading  member,  and  several  times  chairman  of  the  important  com- 
mittee on  coinage.  He  is  one  of  the  best-known  advocates  of  the  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver.  He  was  a  chief  promoter  of  the  Bland 
Act  in  1875,  and  has  championed  the  white  metal  persistently  with  or 
against  the  trend  of  his  party  or  of  the  country.     Died  1899. 

"  Bland  Dollar,"  so  called  after  Congressman  Bland,  of  Missouri, 
author  of  the  Bland  Act  of  1875,  under  the  provisions  of  which  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  was  to  purchase  each  month  sufficient  bullion 
to  coin  2,000,000  of  silver  dollars  of  412  >£  grains  each,  to  be  considered  a 
legal  tender.     Coinage  began  in  1878. 

Blennerhassett,  Harman  (1764  or  1765-1831),  was  born  in  Eng- 
land. Becoming  imbued  with  republican  ideas,  he  disposed  of  his  es- 
tates and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1797  and  purchased  an  island  in 
the  Ohio  River,  upon  which  he  erected  a  fine  mansion.  He  became  in- 
terested in  the  schemes  of  Aaron  Burr,  to  which  he  contributed  large 
sums  and  for  complicity  in  which  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason, 
but  discharged.     The  proceedings  ruined  him. 

"Blessing  of  the  Bay,"  the  first  seaworthy  vessel  built  in  the 
United  States.  She  was  built  at  Mistick,  Mass.,  for  John  Winthrop, 
and  was  launched  July  4,  163 1.  She  was  used  for  a  number  of  years  in 
trade  with  the  Connecticut  colonies  and  the  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York. 

Bliss,  Cornelius  N.,  born  in  1833,  cotton  manufacturer.  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  under  McKinley  from  1897  to  1899. 

Block,  or  Blok,  Adriaen,  Dutch  navigator,  visited  Manhattan 
(now  New  York)  about  1613  and  again  in  1614  in  the  "  Tiger,"  which 
being  accidentally  burned  he  built  the  ' '  Unrest, ' '  a  sixteen-ton  yacht, 
in  which  he  coasted  as  far  north  as  Nahant,  discovering  the  Housatonic 
and  the  Connecticut  and  the  island  which  bears  his  name. 

Blockade.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, in  lieu  of  a  competent  navy,  only  twelve  serviceable  vessels  being 
at  home,  fitted  out  a  miscellaneous  fleet  of  merchant  craft  for  blockading 
the  Confederate  ports.  The  Confederate  government  had  passed  a  law 
requiring  every  English  vessel  that  entered  its  ports  to  bring  arms  and 
supplies  as  part  of  its  cargo,  and  thus  munitions  were  never  lacking,  as 
long  as  admission  could  be  gained.  Blockade  runners  commonly  went 
first  to  the  British  port  of  Nassau,  in  the  Bahamas,  and  thence  to  Con- 
federate ports.  They  often  got  through,  but  the  blockade  was  wonder, 
fully  successful,  considering  the  extent  of  coast,  and  the  condition  of  the 
navy,  especially  after  the  capture,  early  in  the  war,  of  New  Bern,  Ply- 
mouth, New  Orleans,  etc.    It  finally  accomplished  its  object  of  "  starv- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  85 

ing  the  Confederacy."  United  States  cruisers  exercised  the  right  of 
stopping  and  searching  neutral  vessels  in  the  manner  usual  in  interna- 
tional war.  Vessels  captured  because  of  attempts  to  break  the  blockade 
or  to  carry  contraband  goods,  or  as  property  of  the  enemy,  were  taken 
into  port  and  submitted  to  the  adjudication  of  the  prize  courts,  as  prizes 
of  war.  Congress  passed  no  new  laws  establishing  any  new  principles 
respecting  condemnation  ;  and  the  prize  courts  proceeded  entirely  upon 
the  rules  of  international  law.  The  capture  of  the  brig  ' '  Amy  Warwick" 
on  the  high  seas,  bound  from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Richmond  with  a  cargo  of 
tobacco,  first  distinctly  raised  the  question  of  the  right  of  the  United 
States  to  exercise  war  powers  in  suppressing  the  insurrection.  The  brig 
was  captured  as  "  enemy's  property,"  since  she  belonged  to  persons  at 
Richmond. 

Bloody  Bill,  sometimes  called  the  Force  Bill,  passed  by  Congress 
March  2,  1833.  Its  aim  was  to  enforce  the  tariff  of  1832,  which  the 
Legislature  of  South  Carolina  had  declared  null  and  void. 

Bloody  Shirt.  To  wave  the  bloody  shirt  meant,  in  Congress  or 
other  places,  to  revive  the  memories  of  the  Civil  War  by  impassioned 
allusions.     The  term  was  mostly  used  in  the  times  about  18S0. 

Blount,  James  H.,  born  in  1837,  of  Georgia,  was  elected  a  Demo- 
cratic Representative  in  Congress  from  1873  to  1893.  I11  March,  1893, 
he  was  appointed  Special  Commissioner  to  investigate  affairs  in  Hawaii 
and  the  conduct  of  American  officials  there  in  connection  with  the  then 
recent  revolution  in  that  government.  In  May  he  was  appointed  Min- 
ister to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  but  returned  in  the  autumn. 

"  Blue  Laws."  At  the  second  stated  meeting  of  the  newly-formed 
General  Court  of  New  Haven,  held  in  that  town  in  April,  1644,  it  was 
ordered  that  ' '  the  judicial  laws  of  God,  as  they  were  delivered  by  Moses, ' ' 
should  be  considered  binding  on  all  offenders  and  should  be  a  rule  to 
all  the  courts  of  the  jurisdiction,  "  till  they  be  branched  out  into 
particulars  hereafter. "  These  provisions  have  developed  the  current 
notions  of  New  Haven's  Criminal  Code,  and  these  notions  have  been 
greatly  aided  by  the  absurd  code  of  ' '  Blue  Laws, ' '  published  in  a  history 
of  Connecticut  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Peters,  an  ingenious  and  highly  un- 
reliable writer.     Here  are  specimens  of  the  Blue  Laws  sometimes  quoted  : 

"  No  one  shall  run  on  the  Sabbath  day.  or  walk  in  his  garden,  or 
elsewhere,  except  reverently  to  and  from  meeting." 

"  No  woman  .shall  kiss  her  child  on  the  Sabbath  or  fasting  day." 

"  No  one  shall  read  Common -prayer,  keep  Christmas  or  saints'  days, 
make  minced  pies,  dance,  play  cards,  or  play  on  any  instrument  of 
music  except  the  drum,  trumpet  and  jews-harp." 


86  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Blue  lights.  During  the  second  war  with  England,  Decatur  made 
several  attempts  on  dark  nights  to  escape  from  the  blockaded  port  of 
New  London  (1813).  He  declared  that  his  failure  was  due  to  signals 
of  blue  lights  flashed  from  the  shore  to  warn  the  British.  This  led  to 
the  opponents  of  the  war  being  stigmatized  as  "  Blue-light  Federalists." 

Blue  lodges,  a  secret  pro-slavery  order  in  Western  Missouri, 
formed  about  1854  to  aid  the  Southern  mission  work  of  establishing 
slavery  in  Kansas.  In  March,  1855,  they  crossed  the  Missouri  and 
forcibly  deposited  their  ballots  for  the  pro-slavery  candidates. 

Board  of  Admiralty,  organized  by  the  Continental  Congress,  Oc- 
tober 28,  1779,  from  the  earlier  and  more  numerous  Marine  Committee. 
It  consisted  of  two  members  of  Congress  and  five  others  and  had  charge 
of  all  naval  and  marine  affairs.  It  was  abolished  February  7,  1781, 
upon  the  creation  of  the  Secretary  of  Marine. 

Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations.  Oliver  Cromwell  made  some 
attempts  to  establish  a  board  which  should  supervise  and  regulate  the 
commerce  of  the  colonies  in  America.  No  definite  results  were  reached, 
however,  until  1660,  when  Charles  II.  established  two  separate  councils, 
one  for  trade  and  the  other  for  foreign  plantations.  These  were  from 
1672  to  1675  united.  The  "  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations  "  was 
established  in  1695,  and  was  the  governing  body  having  charge  of  the 
English  colonies  in  America  from  that  time  to  1768,  when  the  "  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  America  "  was  called  into  existence.  In  1782  the 
board  was  abolished. 

Board  of  War.  On  June  12,  1776,  the  Continental  Congress,  urged 
by  an  appeal  from  Washington,  established  a  Board  of  War  and  Ord- 
nance, based  upon  the  contemporary  English  Ordnance  Department.  It 
consisted  of  five  members  of  the  Congress,  and  John  Adams  was  made 
chairman.  October  17,  1777,  it  was  resolved  to  create  a  Board  of  War, 
to  consist  of  three  members  (later  five) ,  not  delegates.  The  board  had 
charge  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  war,  including  records,  supplies,  the 
raising  of  troops  and  money.  The  original  Board  of  War  and  Ord- 
nance, however,  continued  to  exist.  In  1781  a  Secretary  of  War  was 
instituted,  who  in  1782  took  the  place  of  the  board. 

Body  of  liberties,  a  c°de  of  100  fundamental  laws  established  by 
the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  in  December,  1641.  Hitherto  there 
had  been  no  written  law  in  the  colony,  justice  having  been  administered 
wholly  upon  principles  of  equity.  The  Body  of  Liberties  was  drafted 
by  Nathaniel  Ward,  pastor  of  the  church  at  Ipswich.     It  laid  down  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  87 

fundamental  principles  of  the  sacredness  of  life,  liberty,  property  and 
reputation,  and  prescribed  general  rules  for  judicial  proceedings. 

Boers.  A  term  (meaning  farmers)  applied  to  the  native  Dutch  of 
the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State  of  South  Africa.  These  descend- 
ants of  Hollanders  settled  about  Cape  Colony  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  from  which  they  were  driven  by  the  English  in 
1836.  They  are  a  clannish  and  brave  people,  who  fought  back  the  Zulu, 
Kaffir  and  Buseto  tribes,  possessing  much  of  their  country  by  force,  and 
organized  the  republics  known  as  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State. 
They  were  at  war  with  the  English  again  in  1880  and  1881,  and  beat 
their  enemy  in  a  battle  on  Majuba  Hill,  February  of  the  latter  year. 
Independence  was  granted  the  Boers  by  England,  but  discovery  of  gold 
and  diamonds  in  1887  caused  a  great  rush  of  foreigners  into  the  Trans- 
vaal that  was  followed  by  contention  over  the  refusal  of  the  Boers  to 
grant  naturalization  to  Uitlanders,  except  under  what  the  English  re- 
garded as  unjust  conditions.  Disputes  thus  aroused  brought  about  the 
Jameson  raid,  1894,  and  grew  more  rancorous  until  1899  (October  11), 
when  President  Kruger  declared  war  against  the  English.  The  Amer- 
ican Consul  (Macrum)  at  Pretoria  hastily  resigned  his  post  and  affairs 
throughout  South  Africa  immediately  took  on  a  serious  aspect.  The 
war  was  stoutly  prosecuted  by  the  Boers  invading  Natal  and  gaining 
many  victories,  at  Dundee,  Ladysmith,  Colenso,  Modder  River,  Bloem- 
fontein,  Spion  Kop,  etc.  Americans  took  great  interest  in  the  war, 
public  sympathy  being  pretty  equally  divided  and  funds  were  collected 
for  the  help  of  both  sides.  Many  Americans  enlisted  to  fight  in  the 
Boer  ranks,  while  the  wealthy  contributed  largely  in  money  to  aid  the 
English,  besides  purchasing  and  outfitting  a  hospital  ship,  the  "  Maine." 

Bohemia  Manor,  a  grant  of  5,000  acres  of  land  along  the  Elk  River 
made  by  L,ord  Baltimore,  in  1666,  to  Augustine  Herman,  a  Bohemian 
surveyor,  who  promised  therefor  to  make  a  map  of  Maryland.  Herman 
obtained  papers  of  denization  and  was  naturalized  with  his  family 
under  the  first  act  of  that  kind  passed  in  the  province. 

Boise  City,  Idaho,  was  first  settled  as  a  trading-post  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company.  The  town  was  laid  out  in  1863  and  became  the  capital 
of  the  State  (then  territory)  in  1864. 

Boker,  George  H.  (1823-1890),  of  Philadelphia,  author,  wrote 
several  successful  plays  and  many  patriotic  lyrics.  He  was  U.  S.  Min- 
ister to  Turkey  from  187 1  to  1875  and  to  Russia  from  1875  to  1879. 

Bolivar,  Simon  (1783 -1830),  liberator,  was  the  most  prominent 
figure  in  the  struggle  of  the  Spanish  South  American  provinces  for  in- 


88  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

dependence,   being  at  times  absolute    dictator.     He  had    the    warm 
sympathy  of  American  public  men. 

Bolivia.  A  treaty  of  peace,  friendship,  commerce  and  navigation 
was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Bolivia  May  13,  1858. 
The  rights  of  neutrals  in  this  treaty  were  carefully  explained. 

Bollman's  Case.  Bollman  was  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  in  1807  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum, 
charged  with  being  implicated  in  a  treasonable  attempt  to  levy  war 
upon  the  United  States.  (See  Burr,  Aaron.)  The  argument  of  the 
counsel  for  the  defendant  turned  upon  the  authority  of  the  Supreme 
Court  to  issue  writs  of  habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum,  also  upon  the 
nature  of  a  treasonable  act.  It  was  decided  that  the  court  could  issue 
writs  of  habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum,  but  judgment  was  found  for 
the  plaintiff  for  lack  of  precision  in  evidence,  to  prove  the  place  of 
commission  of  the  treasonable  act.  Also  it  was  decided  that  a  mere 
conspiracy  to  subvert  the  government  by  force  is  not  treason  ;  an  actual 
levying  of  war  is  necessary. 

Bonaparte,  Charles  i/ucien  Jules  I/aurent  (1803-1857),  orni- 
thologist, eldest  son  of  L,ucien  Bonaparte,  Napoleon's  brother,  came  to 
Philadelphia  and  published  several  valuable  works  on  his  favorite 
science.  In  1848  was  a  republican  leader  in  Rome  and  vice-president 
of  the  constituent  assembly. 

Bonaparte,  Elisabeth  (Patterson)  (1785-1879),  wife  of  Jerome 
Bonaparte  (youngest  brother  of  Napoleon),  to  whom  she  was  married 
in  1803  by  Archbishop  Carroll  with  all  requisite  legal  formalities.  She 
sailed  for  Europe  in  1805,  but  the  opposition  of  Napoleon  prevented 
her  landing  and  she  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  England.  The  mar- 
riage was  annulled  by  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  she  returned 
to  America.     Jerome  married  the  Princess  Caroline  of  Wiirtemberg. 

Bonaparte,  Jerome  (1784-1860),  King  of  Westphalia,  youngest 
brother  of  Napoleon.  His  marriage  with  Miss  Patterson,  of  Baltimore, 
in  1803  was  declared  null  by  Napoleon,  who  made  him,  in  1807,  King  of 
Westphalia.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Waterloo.  From  his  exile 
at  Trieste  he  returned  to  France  and  was  made  field  marshal  in  1850. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph  (1 768-1844),  King  of  Spain,  elder  brother  of 
Napoleon,  was  made  King  of  Spain  by  Napoleon  in  1808,  but  left  it 
after  his  defeat  by  Wellington  at  Vittoria.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  after  Waterloo  and,  except  for  a  brief  period,  lived  till  1841  in 
Bordentown,  N.  J.,  where  he  was  very  popular. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  89 

"Bonhomme  Richard,"  an  old  East  Indiaman  fitted  upas  a  man- 
of-war  by  the  French  at  L' Orient  in  1779,  and  commanded  by  Paul  Jones. 
She  sailed  from  L' Orient  under  American  colors,  but  with  French  in- 
structions and  accompanied  by  two  French  vessels,  the  "  Alliance  "  and 
the  "  Pallas."  Jones  attempted  to  enter  the  harbor  of  Leith,  Scotland, 
but  was  prevented  by  storms.  On  September  23  the  vessels  encountered 
a  British  merchant  fleet,  guarded  by  two  British  warships,  the  "  Serapis  " 
and  the  "  Countess  of  Scarborough."  The  "  Pallas  "  quickly  captured 
the  "Scarborough,"  a  small  twenty -gun  vessel.  Jones  unhesitatingly 
attacked  the  "Serapis,"  though  his  vessel  was  far  inferior  at  every 
point.  He  lasned  the  "Serapis'  "  bowsprit  to  the  "Richard's"  miz- 
zenmast  and  raked  the  former's  deck  with  musketry.  The  "Serapis  " 
poured  broadside  after  broadside  into  the  ' '  Richard. ' '  Finally  a  bucket 
of  hand  grenades,  thrown  down  the  "  Serapis'  "  hatchways,  compelled 
her  commander  to  surrender.  Jones  transferred  his  crew  to  the 
"  Serapis,"  and  the  "  Richard  "  sank  in  a  few  hours. 

Bonus  Bill,  a  bill  submitted  by  Calhoun,  December  23,  r8i6,  appro- 
priating $1,500,000  "  for  constructing  roads  and  canals  and  improving 
the  navigation  of  watercourses."  The  bill  was  passed,  being  strongly 
supported  by  New  York  and  the  South.  It  was  supposed  the  money 
would  immediately  be  applied  to  the  construction  of  a  canal  between 
Albany  and  the  Lakes.  President  Madison  vetoed  the  bill  during  the 
last  days  of  his  administration,  insisting  that  internal  improvement 
measures  needed  a  constitutional  amendment.  Accordingly  New  York 
State  undertook  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal. 

Bonvouloir,  M.  de,  French  diplomatist.  His  reports  to  Vergeunes 
of  his  conferences  with  Franklin  at  Philadelphia  in  1775  did  much  to 
bring  about  the  French  alliance. 

Boone,  Daniel  (1735-J820),  wras  born  in  Pennsylvania  and  died  in 
Missouri.  He  was  a  daring  and  .skillful  hunter  in  North  Carolina,  and 
in  1769  started  for  the  region  which  is  now  Kentucky,  thus  becoming 
the  pioneer  in  the  settlement  of  that  State.  He  founded  Boonesborough 
on  the  Kentucky  River,  and  was  for  many  years  the  chief  hero  among 
the  many  rude  and  picturesque  figures  of  the  frontier.  He  excelled  es- 
pecially in  Indian  warfare,  the  most  striking  episode  of  which  was  per- 
haps the  battle  of  the  Blue  Licks  in  1782.  Countless  stories  are  related 
of  his  adventures  and  hair-breadth  escapes.  His  last  years  were  passed 
in  poverty,  though  a  grant  of  lands  was  finally  bestowed  upon  him  by 
Congress. 

Boonville,  or  Booneville,  Mo.  Here,  June  17,  1861,  Captain 
Nathaniel  Lyon,   commanding  about   2,000  Federal  troops,  defeated 


/ 


90  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Price,  the  Confederate  general,  whose  army  numbered  several  thousand 
poorly  armed  and  unorganized  volunteers.  This  battle  was  the  outcome 
of  numerous  secessionist  plots  fomented  by  Governor  Jackson,  of  Mis- 
souri, and  General  Price.  Lyon  captured  twenty  prisoners,  two  six- 
pounder  guns  and  the  supplies  of  the  Confederate  camp. 

Booth,  Edwin  (1833-1893),  actor,  first  appeared  as  such  at  the 
Boston  Museum  in  1849.  He  was  brilliantly  successful,  not  only  in  the 
United  States,  but  in  England  and  Germany,  in  Macbeth,  King  I,ear, 
Othello,  Iago,  Richard  III.,  Shylock  and  other  parts,  and  especially  in 
Hamlet,  with  which  his  name  is  inseparably  connected. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes  (1839- 1865),  actor,  during  the  Civil  War  was 
a  violent  secessionist.  On  the  night  of  April  14,  1865,  he  shot  President 
Lincoln  at  Ford's  Theater,  Washington.  He  was  concealed  for  a  time 
by  friends  in  Maryland,  but  fled  to  Virginia,  where  he  was  shot  in  a 
barn  by  his  pursuers,  April  26. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus  (1796-1852),  actor,  after  establishing  his 
reputation  in  England  came  to  the  United  States  in  1821,  where,  and  in 
occasional  visits  to  England,  he  greatly  extended  his  fame. 

Border  Ruffians,  a  name  applied  to  the  pro-slavery  men  of  Mis- 
souri who,  in  1855  and  after,  during  the  struggle  in  Kansas,  were  accus- 
tomed to  cross  over  into  that  State  to  carry  elections  and  harass  the 
anti-slavery  settlers.  The  name  was  sometimes  used  by  these  men  them- 
selves and  not  always  regarded  as  a  term  of  reproach. 

Border  States,  a  name  applied  to  the  Slave  States  of  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  as  lying  next  to  the 
Free  States,  and  sometimes  including  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and 
Arkansas.  These  States  were  particularly  anxious  both  before  and 
during  the  Civil  War  for  an  amicable  settlement  of  all  difficulties.  They 
originated  the  Peace  Conference  of  186 1.  Of  the  Border  States  only 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas  seceded. 

Borie,  Adolph  1$.  (1809-1890),  of  Philadelphia,  merchant,  acquired 
a  large  fortune  and  gave  large  sums  to  aid  soldiers  in  the  Civil  War. 
From  March  to  June,  1869,  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Boroughs.  William  Penn's  charter  of  the  territory  west  of  the 
Delaware  River  authorized  him,  in  1681,  to  erect  the  country,  among 
other  divisions,  into  boroughs  similar  to  those  of  England.  This  system 
of  boroughs  continues  in  Pennsylvania  to  the  present  time,  and  exists 
also  in  New  Jersey,  Minnesota  and  Connecticut.  In  New  Jersey 
boroughs  were  established  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  ;  in 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  91 

Connecticut  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  Their  growth  was 
gradual.  Beginning  with  1619  Virginia  had  eleven  boroughs.  These 
were  later  reduced  to  two.  Lord  Baltimore's  charter  entitled  him  to 
create  boroughs  in  Maryland.  Gorges  also  established  boroughs  in 
Maine  under  his  charter  of  1639. 

Boscawen,  Edward  (1711-1761),  British  admiral,  distinguished 
himself  at  Porto  Bello  and  Carthagena,  and  in  1758  in  conjunction  with 
Lord  Amherst  reduced  Louisbourg  and  Cape  Breton. 

Boston,  capital  of  Massachusetts,  was  founded  by  John  Winthrop  and 
his  company  in  1630.  The  settlement  grew  in  prosperity  until  the 
French  and  Indian  War,  when  it  suffered  heavy  exactions.  Opposition 
to  the  measures  of  the  British  ministry  began  here.  The  Stamp  Act  and 
Tea  Act  aroused  indignation.  Troops  were  quartered  in  the  town.  On 
December  16,  1773,  a  party  disguised  as  Mohawk  Indians  emptied 
three  cargoes  of  tea  into  the  harbor.  The  port  was  closed  by  the  British 
Parliament  June  1,  1774.  The  British  army,  besieged  in  Boston  by  the 
Americans  from  June,  1775,  evacuated  the  town  in  March,  1776.  The 
Constitution  of  the  State  was  here  adopted  in  1780.  In  1822  Boston 
became  a  city.  From  1830  to  i860  it  was  regarded  as  the  headquarters 
of  the  anti-slavery  and  other  reform  movements.  The  city  was  visited 
by  a  disastrous  fire  in  1872,  which  burned  on  two  days,  November  9  and 
10,  involving  a  loss  of  over  $80,000,000.  The  population  of  Boston  in 
1708  was  12,000;  1719,  18,000;  1780,  23,000;  1800,  25,000;  1850, 
139,000  ;  1875,  360,000  ;  1890,  448,477. 

Boston  Athenaeum,  a  library  supported  by  subscription  and  founded, 
with  a  governing  board  of  trustees,  April  7,  1807.  When  John  Quincy 
Adams  went  as  Minister  to  Russia  he  deposited  his  library  in  the 
Athenaeum,  nearly  doubling  its  collection.  A  valuable  collection  of 
coins,  antiques  and  curiosities  is  also  contained  in  the  Athenaeum.  It 
now  possesses  over  105,000  volumes. 

"  Boston  "  Case  (1837).  A  Georgia  fugitive  slave  escaped  on  the 
ship  "Boston"  bound  for  Maine  and  reached  Canada.  The  Governor 
of  Georgia  charged  the  captain  with  slave-stealing  and  demanded  his 
return  as  a  fugitive  from  justice.  The  Governor  of  Maine  refused, 
whereupon  the  Legislature  of  Georgia  called  upon  Congress  to  so 
amend  the  laws  as  to  compel  the  Maine  Governor  to  comply.  No  action 
was  taken. 

Boston  Massacre.  During  1769  and  the  early  months  of  1770  con- 
tinual quarrels  and  misunderstandings  occurred,  between  the  Boston 
populace   and  the   British   soldiers  stationed  in  the  town,   over  the 


92  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

persistent  non-observance  of  the  navigation  acts.  In  February,  1770,  a 
pressgang  from  the  British  frigate  • '  Rose  ' '  boarded  a  ship  belonging 
to  Hooper,  of  Marblehead,  and  a  riot  followed.  On  the  night  of  March 
5,  the  ringing  of  fire  bells  brought  together  a  large  crowd  and  the  usual 
collision  writh  the  soldiers  took  place.  The  soldiers  fired.  Three  persons 
Avere  killed  and  several  others  severely  wounded.  The  news  of  the 
Boston  Massacre  spread  rapidly,  strengthening  the  revolutionary  spirit. 
The  soldiers  were  acquitted. 

"  Boston  News  letter,"  the  first  genuine  newspaper  published  in 
the  United  States.  The  first  issue  appeared  at  Boston  April  24,  1704. 
The  paper  was  a  weekly,  was  edited  and  published  by  John  Campbell, 
then  postmaster  at  Boston,  and  was  printed  by  Bartholomew  Green.  It 
was  issued  every  Monday  and  appears  to  have  been  the  outgrowth  of  a 
series  of  news  letters  from  London,  which  Campbell,  as  controlling  the 
news  center,  in  his  capacity  of  postmaster,  received  from  time  to  time 
and  sent  to  the  Governors  of  the  several  New  England  colonies.  These 
letters  were  a  digest  of  the  happenings,  political  and  social,  in  England 
and  on  the  Continent,  with  here  and  there  a  suggestion  as  to  the  politics 
and  government  of  the  American  colonies.  The  Boston  News  Letter 
consisted  at  first  of  two  pages,  eight  by  twelve  inches.  Its  publication 
was  suspended  in  1776. 

Boston  Port  Act,  an  act  proposed  in  Parliament  by  Lord  North  and 
passed  March  31,  1774,  in  retaliation  for  the  destruction  of  cargoes  of  tea 
in  Boston  harbor.  The  act  provided  for  the  discontinuation  of  "  landing 
and  discharging,  lading  or  shipping  of  goods,  wTares  and  merchandise  at 
the  town  and  within  the  harbor  of  Boston."  Commerce  was  transferred 
to  Salem  and  Marblehead.  General  Gage  arrived  to  enforce  this  measure 
on  June  1.  Much  indignation  and  sympathy  were  felt  for  the  Bostonians 
throughout  the  colonies,  and  material  aid  in  gifts  was  rendered  them. 
Broadsides  were  forthwith  issued  in  Boston  and  Worcester  against  the 
use  of  British  goods. 

Boston  Public  library,  authorized  by  an  act  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Legislature  April  3,  1848,  and  formally  opened  in  Mason  Street 
near  its  present  site  March  20,  1854.  The  second  building  was  begun 
September  17,  1855,  and  was  completed  in  1858.  Gifts  of  books  and 
money  have  been  made  by  a  number  of  prominent  New  Bnglanders. 
The  Library  with  eleven  branches  contains  nearly  600,000  volumes.  The 
new  building  is  now  completed. 

Boston,  Siege  of.  Immediately  after  Lexington  and  Concord, 
Boston  was  invested  by  16,000  Americans  under  General  Ward.     The 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  93 

ffcrart  attempt  to  narrow  the  lines  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Americans 
at  Bunker  Hill  (</.  v.).  On  July  3  Washington  succeeded  Ward. 
Through  the  fall  and  winter  he  drilled  his  men  and  drew  his  siege  lines 
closer.  He  waited  only  for  ammunition  and  siege  guns  to  begin  more 
active  operations.  Having  secured  these  in  the  early  spring  of  1776 
from  Ticonderoga  {q.  v.),  he  seized  Dorchester  Heights  on  the  night  of 
March  4,  1776.  Here  he  commanded  the  city  and  the  fleet,  and  on 
March  17  Howe,  who  had  succeeded  Gage,  was  obliged  to  evacuate 
Boston. 

Boudinot,  l£lias  (1 740-1821),  of  New  Jersey,  was  delegate  to  Con- 
gress most  of  the  time  from  1777  to  1784,  was  its  president  in  1782,  and 
as  such  signed  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with  England.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from  1789  to  1795,  Director  of  the  Mint  from  1795  to  1805, 
and  was  much  interested  in  the  education  of  the  Indians  and  in  mission- 
ary enterprises. 

Boundaries.  Colonial  boundaries  were  often  disputed,  grants  hav- 
ing been  made  by  kings  ignorant  or  careless  of  American  geography. 
For  these  the  tribunal  was  most  commonly  the  Privy  Council  of  the 
King  of  Great  Britain.  After  the  Revolution  Congress  took  jurisdiction 
over  them.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  in  1781  provided  an  elaborate 
mode,  modeled  on  English  procedure  under  the  Grenville  Act  of  1770, 
for  selecting  a  court  which  should  try  such  disputes  between  States. 
Since  1789  .such  cases  have  been  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  like  other  cases  between  States.  (For  the  boundaries  of  the 
United  States  and  their  history,  see  Versailles,  Treaty  of,  Annexations, 
Northeast  Boundary  and  Northwest  Boundary.) 

Bounty  I^ands.  On  September  16,  1776,  Congress  passed  a  resolu- 
tion, promising  both  commissioned  and  non-commissioned  officers  who 
would  enlist  in  the  cause  of  the  Revolution  certain  "  bounty  lands,"  to 
be  taken  from  the  "  Crown  lands,"  or  Northwest  Territory,  which  was 
then  claimed  in  portions  by  several  States.  Maryland  protested  vigor- 
ously against  this  resolution,  on  the  ground  that  she  had  no  extra  lands, 
and  would  therefore  be  unfairly  taxed. 

Boutwell,  George  S.,  "born  in  1818,  cabinet  officer,  was  a  lawyer 
and  Democratic  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature.  By  a  co- 
alition of  the  Free-Soilers  and  Democrats  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  185 1  and  1852.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Con- 
ference, and  was  in  1862-1863  tne  ^rst  commissioner  of  internal  revenue. 
He  next  served  as  Republican  Congressman  1863- 1869,  and  was  one  of 
the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson.     In  Grant's 


94  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

first  administration  Boutwell  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  1869-1873, 
and  then  became  U.  S.  Senator,  serving  until  1877. 

Bowdoin  College  (Congregational)  was  chartered  in  1794  and 
opened  in  1802  at  Brunswick,  Me.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Governor 
James  Bowdoin,  of  Massachusetts.  The  Medical  School  of  Maine, 
founded  in  1820,  is  connected  with  this  college. 

Bowie,  James  (1790-1836),  of  Texas,  soldier.  A  weapon  which  he 
used  in  a  melee  was  the  model  of  the  celebrated  ' '  Bowie  knife. ' '  He 
went  to  Texas  about  1830  and  was  killed  at  the  Alamo. 

Bowles,  Samuel  (1826-1878),  entered  the  office  of  the  Springfield 
Republican  at  an  early  age,  and  in  185 1  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
management  of  the  journal.  He  made  his  paper  one  of  the  foremost 
organs  of  public  opinion  in  New  England,  and  acquired  a  national 
reputation  as  a  journalist.  He  visited  Europe  and  the  Pacific  slope  on 
several  occasions,  and  wrote  accounts  of  his  travels,  including  the  work 
"  Our  Great  West."  He  was  a  Republican  in  politics  down  to  his  sup- 
port of  Greeley's  candidacy  in  1872. 

Bowyer,  Fort  (Mobile  Bay),  attacked  September  14,  1814,  by  a 
combined  land  and  naval  force  of  British  and  Indians.  They  were  re- 
pulsed with  the  loss  of  one  vessel  and  232  men.  The  Americans  lost 
eight  men. 

Boydtoti  Road,  Va.,  a  charge  upon  the  Confederates  by  Ord's  two 
divisions  of  Grant's  army,  then  operating  about  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg, April  1,  1865.  This  was  one  of  the  closing  battles  of  that  famous 
campaign.  The  charge  took  place  at  dawn  and  was  directed  along  the 
Boydton  Road  toward  Hatcher's  Run  against  the  rear  of  the  Confeder- 
ate intrenchments.  The  lines  were  forced  and  several  thousand  pris> 
oners  captured. 

Braddock,  Edward  (about  1 695-1755),  was  an  English  general  of 
the  old  school,  who  was  sent  by  the  government  as  generalissimo  in 
America  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  He 
confidently  expected  to  reduce  the  French  posts,  and  marched  from 
Virginia  on  Fort  Duquesne,  taking  few  precautions,  and  disregarding 
the  advice  of  Washington  and  others.  On  July  9,  1755,  his  army  was 
entrapped  on  the  banks  of  the  Monongahela  near  the  fort  by  an  inferior 
FYanco-Indian  force.  Braddock  had  five  horses  shot  under  him  and 
was  mortally  wounded  in  a  contest  in  which  he  showed  little  general- 
ship, but  much  bravery.     He  died  four  days  later. 

Braddock's  Field  (July  9,  1755).  On  May  10,  1755,  General  Brad- 
dock took  command  of  2,200  men  at  Fort  Cumberland  to  advance  upon 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  95 

Fort  Duquesne.  The  army  moved  slowly,  clearing  a  way,  and  on  July 
7  was  about  eight  miles  from  the  fort.  The  fort  was  strongly  situated 
and  well  garrisoned  ;  but  the  commandant  determined  to  strike  a  blow 
on  the  advancing  English.  On  the  morning  of  the  ninth  an  ambuscad- 
ing party  of  900  left  the  fort.  The  British  had  passed  the  ford  of  the 
Monongahela,  and  were  advancing  through  thick  woods  when  they 
were  assailed  from  all  sides.  They  stood  bravely,  but  could  see  no  foe. 
Being  huddled  together  they  were  fairly  mowed  down.  Their  courage 
at  length  forsook  them — they  broke  and  fled.  The  mortality  was  terri- 
ble. Of  eighty-six  officers  sixty-three  were  killed  and  disabled.  Of 
1,373  troops  only  459  came  off  unharmed.  The  French  loss  was  trifling. 
Colonel  Washington  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery.  Braddock 
was  mortally  wounded.  Dunbar,  next  in  command,  insisted  on  retreat, 
and  left  the  frontier  unguarded. 

Bradford,  William  (1588-1657),  was  born  at  Austerfield,  in 
England,  and  was  prominent  in  the  company  of  Separatists,  who,  in 
1607-08,  left  England  for  Holland.  He  was  among  the  leaders  of  the 
"  Mayflower  "  Pilgrims,  and  on  the  death  of  Carver,  in  April,  1621,  was 
chosen  Governor  of  the  struggling  Plymouth  Colony.  This  post  he 
retained,  with  a  few  intermissions,  until  his  death.  Governor  Bradford 
was  the  author  of  a  very  valuable  "  History  of  the  Plymouth  Plantation  " 
down  to  the  year  1647.  This  volume,  which  had  remained  in  manu- 
script, and  had  been  frequently  quoted,  disappeared  from  Boston  during 
the  confusion  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  singularly  discovered  in 
England  in  the  Fulham  library  in  1855,  and  printed  the  next  year. 

Bradley,  Joseph  P.  (1813-1892),  jurist,  was  appointed  an  Associate 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  by  President  Grant 
in  1870,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
celebrated  "  Electoral  Commission"  of  1877,  and  is  generally  regarded 
as  having  given  the  casting  votes  which  decided  the  contest  in  favor  of 
Hayes. 

Bradstreet,  Anne  (1612-1672),  of  Massachusetts,  poetess,  married 
Governor  Bradstreet  in  1628.  Some  of  her  poems  were  published,  and 
received  great  praise  from  her  contemporaries.  They  are  interesting  as 
the  work  of  the  first  poetess  of  New  England. 

Bradstreet,  John  (1711-1774),  soldier,  served  in  Pepperell's  regi- 
ment in  the  expedition  against  Louisbourg  in  1745.  In  1758  he  cap- 
tured Fort  Frontenac,  served  with  Amherst  against  Ticonderoga  in 
1759,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Pontiac  in  1764.  He  was 
made  major-general  in  1772. 


96  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Bradstreet,  Simon  (1603-1697),  colonial  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, to  which  he  came  in  1630,  in  .1660  was  sent  to  England  to 
congratulate  Charles  II.  on  his  accession,  was  Governor  from  1679  to 
1686,  and  again  after  Andros'  recall  till  1692.  He  was  in  the  service  of 
Massachusetts  sixty-two  years.     He  opposed  the  witchcraft  delusion. 

Bragg-,  Braxton  (1817-1876),  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837. 
In  the  Mexican  War  he  was  distinguished  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista. 
He  resigned  from  the  army,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  joined 
the  Confederates.  He  served  at  Shiloh  and  succeeded  Beauregard  in 
command  in  the  West.  In  the  summer  of  1862  he  invaded  Kentucky, 
and  was  defeated  at  Perryville.  He  was  defeated  again  at  Murfrees- 
boro',  but  in  1863  won  the  battle  of  Chickamauga.  Grant  defeated  his 
army  at  the  battles  around  Chattanooga,  and  General  Bragg  was  re- 
moved from  command.  He  served  against  Sherman  toward  the  close 
of  the  war. 

Bragg,  Edward  S.,  born  in  1827,  of  Wisconsin,  soldier.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Forty-fifth,  Forty-sixth,  Forty-seventh  and  Forty -ninth 
Congresses. 

Braintree  Resolutions.  Opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act,  1764,  had  its 
beginning  in  Braintree,  Massachusetts,  when  Samuel  Adams  drafted  and 
circulated  a  petition  to  the  selectmen  of  the  town  praying  them  to  call  a 
meeting  of  the  people  to  take  action  in  the  premises,  and  to  instruct 
their  representatives  in  the  court  in  relation  to  the  stamps.  Mr.  Adams, 
in  order  that  his  designs  might  not  miscarry,  drafted  the  resolutions 
himself,  which  being  presented  were  unanimously  adopted,  and  later 
met  with  general  approval  from  the  citizens  of  Boston. 

Branch,  John  (1782-1863),  was  Governor  of  North  Carolina  from 
1817  to  1820.  He  was  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Senator  from  1S23  to  1829, 
and  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  1829  to  183 1. 

Brandjrwine,  Battle  of,  September  11,  1777.  On  Howe's  advance 
upon  Philadelphia  from  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  Washington  took 
up  a  strong  position  at  Brandy  wine  Creek,  though  he  had  but  11,000  to 
oppose  to  Howe's  18,000.  While  Knyphausen  engaged  the  center,  Corn- 
wallis  attempted  a  flank  movement  upon  the  American  right.  He  met 
with  obstinate  resistance  from  Sullivan's  division,  which  had  formed  a 
new  front,  but  he  forced  it  to  retire.  The  American  center  was  now 
obliged  to  fall  back  ;  this  movement  was  directed  in  a  masterly  way  by 
General  Greene.  The  right,  attacked  by  Knyphausen  in  front  and 
Cornwallis  on  the  flank,  also  accomplished  its  retreat  in  good  order. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  97 

The  British  were  thus  masters  of  the  field.  It  was  a  battle  in  which  the 
flank  movement  was  warranted,  but  it  was  met  with  a  promptness  and 
sagacity  which  saved  the  Americans  from  defeat.  About  1,000  Ameri- 
cans fell.     The  British  losses  slightly  exceeded  that  number. 

Brant,  Joseph  (1742-1807),  chief  of  the  Mohawk  Indians,  served 
in  the  British  army  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  He  was  active  in 
the  massacre  at  Cherry  Valley  and  at  Minisink  in  1779.  He  led  a  tribe 
in  St.  Leger's  expedition  against  Fort  Stanwix  in  1779.  After  the  war 
he  aided  the  U.  S.  government  in  negotiating  Indian  treaties. 

Brashear  City,  I/a.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  during 
Banks'  command  of  the  Federal  army  in  Louisiana,  June  23,  1863. 
Banks  had  several  times  engaged  Dick  Taylor  during  this  campaign, 
and  his  outposts  were  stationed  in.  Brashear,  while  Banks  himself  was 
in  pursuit  of  the  Confederates.  Taylor,  aware  of  the  weakness  of  the 
Federal  force,  2,000  in  all,  eluded  Banks,  and  joining  Green  and  Mou- 
ton,  together  they  hurried  down  to  the  town  with  15,000  men.  The 
Federals  were  easily  defeated  and  the  town  captured,  together  with 
1,000  prisoners  and  large  quantities  of  valuable  stores.  Five  thousand 
refugee  negroes  were  seized  and  returned  to  slavery. 

Brazil.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Brazil  December  12,  1828.  By  the  convention  of  January  27, 
1849,  Brazil  agreed  to  pay  500,000  milreis  to  settle  claims  of  American 
citizens.  An  agreement  regarding  trade-marks  was  made  in  1878.  A 
reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  January  31,  1891. 

Bread  Riots.  In  1837,  during  the  period  of  general  financial  panic, 
prices  rose  enormously.  Rents  were  exorbitant  and  flour  was  twelve 
dollars  per  barrel.  During  February  and  March  the  poor  of  New  York 
held  frequent  riotous  meetings,  which  culminated  in  violent  assaults 
upon  flour  warehouses.  In  several  instances  storehouses  were  broken 
open  and  the  mob  helped  themselves.  The  militia  was  called  out  to 
quell  the  disturbance. 

Breckenridge,  John  (1760-1806),  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky 
Legislature  from  1797  to  1800.  In  1798,  with  Jefferson  and  Nicholas, 
he  draughted  the  famous  "  Kentucky  Resolutions  "  and  introduced  them 
in  the  Legislature.  He  was  a  Democratic  leader  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  180 1  to  1805,  and  was  prominent  in  the  legislation  concerning  the 
annexation  of  Louisiana.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Jefferson's 
Cabinet  from  1805  to  1806. 

Breckenridge,  John  Cabell  (1821-1875),  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  was  a  grandson  of  John  Breckenridge.     He  fought  in  the 
Vol.  V.— 7 


98  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Mexican  War,  and  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Kentucky, 
1851-55.  He  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1856  on  the  ticket  with 
Buchanan,  and  served  from  1857  to  1861,  and  was  the  youngest  man 
ever  elected  to  the  office.  In  i860  he  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  President  of  the  ultra  slavery  wing  of  the  Democratic  party,  and 
received  seventy-two  electoral  votes.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator  in  1861, 
but  joined  the  Confederates  and  was  expelled  from  the  Senate.  He 
was  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh  in  1862,  and  commanded  at  the  defense  of 
Baton  Rouge  the  same  year.  He  led  the  right  wing  at  Murfreesboro', 
was  at  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga,  gained  the  battle  of  Newmarket 
in  1864,  and  served  at  Cold  Harbor,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  in  East- 
ern Tennessee,  and  at  Nashville.  For  a  short  time  before  the  end  of 
the  Rebellion  he  was  Confederate  Secretary  of  War. 

Breckenridge,  William  C.  P.,  born  in  1837,  attained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  of  cavalry  in  the  Confederate  service.  He  represented 
Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1884  to  1895,  when 
he  was  defeated  by  the  public  indignation  caused  by  the  Madeline  Pol- 
lard scandal. 

Breda,  Treaty  of,  was  a  treaty  concluded  between  England,  France, 
Holland  and  Denmark  at  Breda  in  1667.  Among  its  provisions,  those 
relating  to  America  were  the  restoration  of  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia)  to 
France  by  England,  while  England  secured  her  claims  in  the  West 
Indies  and  retained  New  Netherlands  (New  York)  from  Holland. 

Bremen.  An  extradition  convention  was  concluded  in  1853  between 
the  United  States  and  Bremen. 

Brentwood,  Tenn.,  a  minor  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring 
March  25,  1863,  in  which  Wheeler,  Forrest  and  Wharton,  commanding 
5,000  Confederates,  defeated  800  Federals  under  Bloodgood  and  G.  C. 
Smith. 

Bresci,  Gaetano,  see  appendix,  page  476. 

Brevard,  Ephraim  (1750-1783).  was  a  prominent  and  influential 
patriot  of  North  Carolina.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Mecklenburg  Con- 
vention of  1775,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  famous 
(alleged)  declaration  which  anticipated  by  over  a  year  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  of  Congress.  He  served  in  the  Continental  army,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Charleston  in  1780. 

Brewster,  Benjamin  H.  (1816-1888),  was  Attorney-General  of  Penn- 
sylvania from  1867  to  1869.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Arthur's 
Cabinet  from  1881  to  1885.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  Star  Route  trials. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  99 

Brewster,  William,  "  Elder  »  (1560-1644),  led  a  band  of  "  Sepa- 
ratists  "  from  England  to  Holland  in  1608.  He  obtained  a  grant  of 
land  in  North  America  from  the  Virginia  Company  and  brought  over 
the  first  company  of  Pilgrims  to  what  is  now  Plymouth,  Mass.,  in  1620. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  Plymouth  colony  till  1629. 

Brier's  Creek,  Battle  of,  March  3,  1779.  General  Lincoln  de- 
tailed Ashe  with  1,500  men  to  narrow  the  lines  about  the  British  in 
Savannah.  The  British  turned  his  position  at  Brier's  Creek,  and  of 
Ashe's  force  only  500  again  reached  the  American  camp. 

Briggs  Case.  In  his  address  on  the  occasion  of  his  installation 
into  the  Edward  Robinson  professorship  of  Biblical  Theology  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  of  New  York,  January  20,  1891,  Professor 
Charles  A.  Briggs  asserted  that  reason  is  a  fountain  of  divine  authority 
no  less  savingly  enlightening  than  the  Bible  and  the  Church.  His  views 
were  deemed  not  in  accordance  with  the  Presbyterian  Confession  of 
Faith.  Charges  were  brought  against  Dr.  Briggs  before  the  Presbyte- 
rian General  Assembly.  He  was  supported  by  his  colleagues  in  the 
seminaiy.  In  1892  Briggs  was  tried  and  acquitted  by  the  New  York 
Synod,  the  several  charges  not  having  been  sustained. 

Bright,  Jesse  D.  (1812-1875),  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Indiana 
in  1841.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat 
from  1845  to  1862,  when  he  was  expelled  for  having,  in  a  letter  to  Jef- 
ferson Davis,  recognized  him  as  president  of  the  Confederate  States. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Legislature  in  1866. 

Brinton,  Daniel  G.,  born  in  1837,  has  made  valuable  contributions 
to  the  study  of  American  archaeology,  ethnology  and  linguistics.  He 
wrote  "  American  Hero-Myths,"  "The  American  Race, "  and  edited  a 
"  Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature."     Died  1899. 

Bristoe,  or  Bristow  Station,  Va.  Here,  August  27,  1862,  while 
Jackson  was  awaiting  Lee's  arrival  with  reinforcements  from  Long- 
street's  division,  40,000  troops  under  McDowell  were  sent  against  him 
by  General  Pope.  A  brief  engagement  ensued,  Jackson  retiring  slowly 
toward  Manassas  Junction  with  the  main  body  and  leaving  his  rear- 
guard to  cope  with  McDowell.  October  14,  1863,  during  Lee's  opera- 
tions in  Northern  Virginia,  Warren,  commanding  a  large  force  of 
Meade's  Union  Army,  encountered  here  and  defeated  A.  P.  Hill,  leading 
a  strong  body  of  Confederates.  Warren  lost  546  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Confederate  loss  was  slightly  greater. 

Bristol,  R.  I.,  was  not  settled  by  white  people  until  the  termination 
of  King  Philip's  War  in  1679.     Until   1747  it  was  a  part  of  Massachu* 


ioo  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

setts.  It  was  the  ancient  residence  of  King  Philip,  who  was  killed  here 
in  1676.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  it  was  bombarded  by  the  Brit- 
ish, and  much  of  the  town  destroyed  by  fire.  In  the  French  and  Rev- 
olutionary Wars  and  the  War  of  181 2  it  was  noted  for  its  privateers. 

Bristow,  Benjamin,  born  in  1832,  attained  distinction  as  a  lawyer, 
served  in  the  Civil  War  and  afterward  in  the  Kentucky  State  Senate 
and  as  District  Attorney.  In  1870-72  he  filled  the  office  of  Solicitor- 
General.  His  national  importance  rests  on  his  conduct  of  the  treasury 
department  under  Grant  in  1873-76.  His  reputation  for  reform  led  to 
his  candidacy  for  the  Republican  nomination  for  President  in  1876.  In 
this  contest,  however,  Blaine  and  Bristow,  the  two  leading  candidates, 
were  set  aside,  and  Hayes  received  the  nomination.     Died  1896. 

Broad  River,  Battle  of,  November  12,  1780.  Cornwallis,  having 
learned  the  size  and  position  of  Sumter's  force  above  Camden,  sent 
Major  Wemyss  against  him  with  mounted  infantry.  He  charged  the 
picket,  but  his  force  was  repelled  and  himself  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner. 

Broad  Seal  War,  a  controversy  arising  from  disputed  election 
returns  in  Middlesex  County,  N.  J.  In  the  congressional  elections  of 
1838  the  clerk  of  this  county  had  thrown  out  the  vote  of  South  Amboy 
for  the  Democratic  nominees  on  the  ground  of  defects  in  the  returns. 
The  Democrats  protested,  but  the  Whig  representatives  were  declared 
elected  and  given  certificates  under  the  broad  seal  of  the  State.  When 
Congress  met,  December  2,  1839,  the  House  contained  119  Democrat? 
and  118  Whigs  outside  of  New  Jersey.  The  clerk  refused  to  recognize 
the  five  New  Jersey  Whigs  and  the  greatest  confusion  followed  until,  on 
December  5,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected  Speaker  pro  tempore.  On 
December  17  the  House,  after  much  wrangling,  chose  R.  M.  T.  Hunter, 
of  Virginia,  permanent  Speaker.  The  Democratic  contestants  were 
finally  seated. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac  (1769-1812),  came  to  Canada  from  England  in 
1802  in  the  British  Ariny.  In  1810  he  took  command  of  the  troops  in 
Upper  Canada  and  prepared  the  country  for  defense.  In  1812  he  received 
the  surrender  of  General  Hull's  army  at  Detroit  with  all  the  stores, 
arms  and  cannon.     He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Queenstown. 

Broke,  Sir  Philip  B.  V.  (1776-1841),  commanded  the  British  ship 
"Shannon,"  which  in  1813  captured  the  American  ship  "  Chesapeake," 
Captain  Lawrence,  off  Boston  harbor  after  an  engagement  of  fifteen 
minutes. 

Brook  Farm,  a  communistic  industrial  and  literary  establishment 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  101 

founded  in  Massachusetts,  in  1841,  by  George  Ripley,  and  other  persons 
of  socialistic  tendencies.  It  was  suggested  by  the  schemes  of  Robert 
Owen  and  the  writings  of  Fourier.  The  farm  was  bought  and  stock  as- 
signed on  a  communistic  basis,  and  labor,  manual  or  mental,  received 
compensation  on  a  time  basis.  The  establishment  failed  in  1846,  one  of 
the  largest  buildings  being  destroyed  that  year  by  fire.  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne  and  Horace  Greeley  were  among  those  interested  in  the 
scheme. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  was  settled  in  1636  by  a  few  Walloon  colonists. 
English  and  Dutch  settlers  followed,  and  in  1667  a  charter  was  granted 
the  town.  In  1776  the  site  of  the  present  town  was  the  scene  of  the 
battle  of  Long  Island.  In  1834  Brooklyn  became  a  chartered  city  and 
in  1899  was  consolidated  with  Greater  New  York. 

Brooks,  Phillips  (1835-1893),  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston, 
from  1869  to  1 89 1.  He  was  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  of  Massachusetts 
from  1 89 1  to  1893.  He  was  regarded  in  England  and  the  United  States 
as  the  greatest  preacher  of  his  Church. 

Brooks,  Preston  S.  (1819-1857),  served  during  the  Mexican  War. 
He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  States-rights 
Democrat  from  1853  to  1859.  In  l856  he  savagely  assaulted  Senator 
Sumner  with  a  cane  in  the  Senate  chamber  for  certain  expressions  in  a 
speech  "  on  the  crime  against  Kansas."  The  resolution  for  his  expul- 
sion from  the  House  was  not  carried. 

Brown,  Aaron  V.  (1795-1859),  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1839  to  1845.  He  was  Governor  of  Ten- 
nessee from  1845  to  1847,  and  Postmaster-General  in  Buchanan's  Cabinet 
from  1857  to  1859. 

Brown,  Benjamin  Gratis  (1826-1885),  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri 
Legislature  from  1852  to  1858.  He  edited  the  Missouri  Democrat  from 
1854  to  1859.  He  commanded  a  brigade  during  the  Civil  War.  He  rep- 
resented Missouri  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1863  to 
1867,  was  Governor  of  Missouri  in  1871,  and  having  an  important  part 
in  the  Liberal  Republican  movement,  was  the  Liberal  Republican  and 
Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-President  on  the  ticket  with  Horace 
Greeley  in  1872. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden  (1771-18T0),  was  the  first  American  to 
adopt  literature  as  a  profession.  He  wrote  upon  topics  of  the  times, 
and  published  six  successful  novels  which  were  unsurpassed  in  America 
lentil  the  appearance  of  Cooper's  works, 


102  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Brown,  Fort,  scene  of  the  two  opening  engagements  of  the  Mexican 
War.  Captain  Thornton,  of  General  Taylor's  dragoons,  was  captured 
after  some  fighting  on  April  25,  1846,  byTorrejon,  the  Mexican  general. 
On  May  3  of  the  same  year  Arista,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Mexican 
forces,  opened  fire  upon  the  fort  with  the  batteries  of  Matamoras.  The 
fort  is  now  so  called  because  commanded  by  Major  Brown,  who  with- 
stood a  bombardment  of  168  hours,  and  died  on  May  8.  It  was  origin- 
ally Fort  Texas. 

Brown,  Jacob  (1775-1828),  had  been  a  militia  general  in  New  York 
when  the  War  of  1812  called  out  his  abilities.  He  gained  a  victory  at 
Sackett's  Harbor  in  1813,  was  made  a  major-general  in  the  regular  army, 
and  in  i3i4  won  the  victories  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's  L,ane.  In  1821 
he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  as  general-in-chief. 

Brown,  John  (1736-1803),  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  a  rich  merchant,  led 
the  party  which  destroyed  the  "  Gaspee  "  in  1772.  He  was  a  delegate 
from  Rhode  Island  to  Congress  from  1799  to  1801. 

Brown,  John  (1 744-1 780),  of  Massachusetts,  aided  in  the  capture  of 
Ticonderoga  and  took  Fort  Chambly  in  1775.  He  served  under  Mont- 
gomery at  Quebec.  In  1777  he  captured  Ticonderoga  together  with 
jarge  supplies. 

Brown,  John  [of  Ossawatomie]  (1800- 1859),  was  born  at  Torrington, 
Conn.,  and  early  removed  his  home  to  Ohio.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
wool  business  and  farming,  and  developed  into  an  ardent  and  uncom- 
promising abolitionist.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Kansas  troubles  he 
settled  near  Ossawatomie  in  1855,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  desul- 
tory warfare  in  that  region,  including  the  "  Pottawatomie  Massacre  " 
of  1856.  He  had  many  sympathizers  in  the  Northern  States,  and  by 
1859  his  plans  to  liberate  the  slaves  were  matured.  Having  collected  a 
small  force,  well  armed,  he  suddenly  on  October  16,  1S59,  seized  the 
arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  in  Virginia.  He  was  immediately  blockaded, 
captured  after  a  desperate  resistance,  tried  by  a  Virginia  court,  and  exe- 
cuted at  Charlestown,  Va.,  December  2,  1859.  The  effect  of  this  abor- 
tive undertaking  was  immeasurable.  It  helped  to  "  clear  the  air  "  both 
in  the  North  and  South  and  was  an  important  link  in  the  chain  of 
events  leading  up  to  the  war.  Brown  became  a  hero  in  the  songs  of 
the  Northern  armies.     His  life  is  written  by  F.  B.  Sanborn. 

Brown,  Joseph  Umerson,  born  in  1821,  had  risen  to  prominence 
as  a  lawyer  when  he  became  Governor  of  Georgia.  His  service  in  this 
position  lasted  from  1857  to  1865,  including  the  Civil  War  period.  In 
this  struggle  he  took  an  active  part,  seizing  Forts  Pulaski  and  Jackson 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  103 

at  the  beginning  of  1861,  and  advocating  earnest  resistance,  though  he 
was  several  times  opposed  to  President  Davis.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of 
the  State  Supreme  Court  and  U.  S.  Senator  1881-91.     Died  1894. 

Brown,  Nicholas  (1769-1841),  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  a  successful 
merchant,  was  a  liberal  benefactor  of  Rhode  Island  College,  which  in 
1804  changed  its  name  to  Brown  University  in  his  honor. 

Brown  University  was  founded  in  1764,  by  a  union  of  Baptists 
with  other  sects,  at  Warren,  R.  I.  In  1770  it  was  removed  to  Providence. 
It  received  its  present  name  in  1S04.  Francis  Way  land  was  its  president 
from  1827  to  1855.     From  181 1  to  1828  it  had  a  medical  school. 

Browning,  Orville  H.  (1810-1881),  represented  Illinois  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1863.  He  advocated  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Johnson's 
Cabinet  from  1866  to  1869. 

Brownists,  the  nickname  applied  to  the  religious  Separatists  of 
England  during  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Robert  Brown, 
who  introduced  the  Separatist  doctrines,  was  a  Church  of  England 
clergyman  of  Norwich  until  1580,  when  he  began  declaiming  against 
the  discipline  and  ceremony  of  the  Church.  The  Puritans  were  largely 
influenced  by  the  Separatist  doctrines.  The  Pilgrim  Fathers  were 
Brownists. 

Brownlow,  William  Gannaway  ( 1805-1877) ,  was  in  early  life  a 
Methodist  preacher,  and  for  many  years  edited  the  Knoxville  Whig. 
He  strongly  opposed  secession  and  became  known  as  the  "  Fighting 
Parson."  During  the  war  he  was  a  center  of  the  Unionist  feeling  in 
Eastern  Tennessee,  and  was  at  one  time  imprisoned.  He  was  Governor 
of  the  State  in  1865-69,  and  U.  S.  Senator  1869-75. 

Brown's  Ferry,  Tenn.,  a  skirmish  of  the  Civil  War  during  the 
maneuvers  around  Chattanooga.  At  this  place,  October  27,  28,  1863, 
portions  of  I,ongstreet's  Confederate  troops  were  surprised  and  routed 
by  the  Federals  under  Hooker  and  Smith.  The  latter  general  secured 
an  advantageous  position  upon  a  height  overlooking  the  ferry.  Howard 
with  a  small  force  cut  off  the  pickets  on  one  side  while  Geary  did  the 
same  on  the  other.     The  Confederate  pickets  had  therefore  to  surrender. 

Brownstown,  Mich.  Major  Van  Home  with  200  men  was  here 
defeated  August  5,  1812,  by  a  body  of  Indians  in  ambush  ;  seventeen 
men  were  killed  and  mail  containing  important  information  as  to  the 
needs  at  Detroit  was  captured. 

Brownsville,  Texas,  captured  November  5,  1863,  during  Banks* 


io4  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

expedition  to  the  Rio  Grande,  by  Dana  with  a  small  party  of  Federal 
soldiers.  Bee,  the  Confederate  general,  was  encamped  at  this  place  with 
a  small  force  and  was  defeated  and  driven  out. 

Bruce,  Blanche  K.  (1841-1898),  was  a  slave  in  early  life.  He 
represented  Mississippi  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1875  to 
1 881.     He  became  Register  of  the  Treasury  in  1881. 

Brussels  Conference,  an  international  monetary  conference,  held 
at  Brussels  in  the  autumn  of  1892  at  the  suggestion  of  the  United  States 
government.  The  debate  was  chiefly  upon  the  initial  thesis  of  the 
American  program  suggested  in  the  invitation  to  the  convention,  i.e., 
that  it  was  desirable  to  find  some  means  of  increasing  the  use  of  silver 
in  the  currency  systems  of  the  nations.  No  definite  step  was  taken  at 
this  conference. 

Bryan,  William  J.,  lawyer;  born  i860,  Salem,  111.  In  Congress 
1891-92.  Nominated  for  President,  July  10,  1896,  Democratic  National 
Convention  at  Chicago.  Defeated  Nov.  3,  1896.  Electoral  vote,  Bryan 
176,  McKinley  271.  In  May,  1898,  he  raised  the  3d  Regt.  Neb.  Vol.  Inf., 
of  which  he  became  colonel.  July  4,  1900,  he  was  again  nominated  for 
President  by  the  Democrats,  at  Kansas  City. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen  (i794-i878),poet,  first  won  distinction 
by  his  poem  ' '  The  Embargo  "  in  1807.  He  was  editor-in-chief  of  the 
New  York  Evening  Post  from  1828  to  1878.  The  paper  was  noted  for 
its  democratic  spirit  and  strongly  supported  the  government  during 
the  Civil  War.  Pie  aided  in  forming  the  Republican  party  and  entered 
zealously  into  all  public  questions.  His  most  famous  poem  was  ' '  Thana- 
topsis." 

Bryn  Mawr  College,  near  Philadelphia,  was  founded  in  1884  by 
Jas.  W.  Taylor,  M.  D. 

Buchanan,  James  (April  23,  1791 — June  1,  1868),  the  fifteenth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  near  Mercersburg,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1809,  studied  law,  and  soon  entered 
the  Pennsylvania  Legislature.  In  182 1-3 1  he  was  Congressman  and 
served  as  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee.  President  Jackson  sent 
him  as  Minister  to  Russia  in  1832  :  he  returned  the  next  year  and  in 
1834  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate.  In  that  body  he  continued  until  1845, 
when  he  entered  President  Polk's  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State.  While 
secretary  he  was  called  on  to  conduct  the  delicate  questions  arising  from 
the  Oregon  dispute,  the  acquisition  of  Texas,  and  the  Mexican  War. 
He  had  been  in  1844  mentioned  for  the  Presidency  and  was  a  candidate 
in  1852.  During  1853-56  he  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  England.  As  the 
Democratic    candidate    for  President  in   1856  he    was   elected    ovei 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  105 

Fremont  the  Republican  and  Fillmore  the  Know-Nothing,  and  served 
for  the  term  1857-61.  His  foreign  policy  was  generally  successful. 
As  his  term  went  on,  the  absorbing  slavery  question  overshadowed  all 
other  issues.  After  the  election  of  Lincoln  and  the  beginning  of  seces- 
sion it  was  President  Buchanan's  misfortune  to  have  the  conduct  of 
affairs  for  three  or  four  months  of  extreme  excitement.  His  so-called 
"temporizing  policy"  during  this  period  met  with  severe  criticisms. 
After  the  close  of  his  term  he  lived  in  retirement,  and  died  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.     His  life  has  been  written  by  G.  T.  Curtis. 

Buckingham,  William  A.  (1804-1875),  one  of  the  "  War  Gov- 
ernors," was  Governor  of  Connecticut  from  1858  to  1866.  He  actively 
supported  the  Civil  War.  He  represented  Connecticut  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1869  to  1875. 

Btickner,  Simon  B.,  born  in  1823,  fought  with  distinction  at  Cou- 
treras,  Churubusco  and  Molino  del  Rey.  He  fought  at  Fort  Henry, 
and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Fort  Donelson,  which  he  surrendered  to 
General  Grant  when  left  in  command.  He  led  a  brigade  in  General 
Bragg's  army  in  Tennessee,  and  commanded  a  division  at  Murfreesboro, 
and  Chickamauga.     He  was  Governor  of  Kentucky  from  1887  to  1891. 

Buckshot  War.  The  control  of  the  Pennsylvania  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives in  1838,  on  which  depended  the  choice  of  a  United  States 
Senator,  turned  upon  the  election  in  Philadelphia  (October  9),  where 
the  Democratic  candidates  for  the  Legislature  were  elected  by  small 
majorities  ;  but  their  Congressional  candidate  was  defeated.  There- 
upon the  Democratic  return  judges  cast  out  5,000  Whig  votes,  claiming 
fraud.  The  Whig  judges  then  issued  certificates  of  election  to  both 
their  Congressional  and  Legislative  candidates,  and  these  returns  were 
accepted  by  the  WThig  Secretary  of  State.  At  the  opening  of  the  Leg- 
islature, at  Harrisburg,  December  4,  1838,  armed  partisans  were 
present.  The  Whig  Senate  adjourned  because  of  the  mob,  and  in  the 
Hou.se  two  warring  bodies  assembled.  The  WThig  Governor  called  on 
the  militia,  and  tried,  without  effect,  to  obtain  Federal  aid.  The 
Democratic  House  was  finally  recognized  December  25. 

Bucktails,  a  name  first  given  to  the  Tammany  Society  of  New  York 
City,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  members  of  the  organization  wear- 
ing a  buck's  tail  in  the  hat  as  a  badge.  The  Bucktails,  from  1812  to 
1828,  were  anti-Clintonian  New  York  Democrats.  They  were  the  most 
vigorous  opponents  of  the  Clinton  canal  policy  from  its  inception  (1817), 
and  the  name  was  finally  applied  to  all  who  protested  against  thia 
policy  throughout  the  State,    Under  Martin  Van  Buren  the  Bucktail* 


106  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

obtained  control  of  the  State  temporarily.     After  Governor  Clinton's 
death,  in  1828,  they  became  the  Democratic  party  of  the  State. 

Buel,  James  William,  born  at  Golconda,  111.,  October  22,  1849. 
Son  of  a  tanner,  without  educational  advantages  except  such  as  he 
made  himself.  Taught  a  country  school  and  in  1868  received  an  hon- 
orary scholarship,  by  competitive  examination,  in  University  of  Illinois, 
of  which  institution  he  was  afterwards  librarian.  Went  to  Kansas 
1870,  was  editor  of  a  country  paper,  and  afterwards  engaged  in  journal- 
ism in  St.  Louis.  In  1882  he  made  an  extensive  tour  of  Russia  and 
Siberia,  fortified  by  letters  of  commendation  from  Secretary  of  State 
Frelinghuysen.  He  visited  all  the  most  noted  convict  settlements,  and 
in  1883  published  the  results  of  his  investigations  in  his  well-known 
standard  work,  "  Exile  Life  in  Siberia."  He  followed  authorship  con- 
tinually and  wrote  twenty-five  large  books,  chiefly  of  a  historical  char- 
acter. His  best  known,  "  The  Beautiful  Story,"  had  a  sale  of  1,300,000 
copies.  He  also  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  Giuseppe  Verdi,  the  world- 
famous  composer,  "  The  Great  Operas,"  the  most  sumptuous  publication 
ever  issued  in  America,  the  retail  price  of  which  is  $1,250. 

Buell,  Don  Carlos  (1818-1898),  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841, 
and  served  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  in 
1861  to  the  Department  of  the  Cumberland,  and  occupied  the  strategic 
point  of  Bowling  Green.  Part  of  his  army  arrived  on  the  battle-field  of 
Shiloh  in  time  to  render  important  aid  in  retrieving  the  fortunes  of 
that  contest.  In  the  same  year,  1862,  he  skillfully  maneuvered  against 
Bragg' s  army  of  invasion,  and  defeated  it  at  Perry ville  October  8.  He 
was  soon  after  superseded  by  General  Rosecrans.     Died  1898. 

Buena  Vista,  Mexico.  Here  was  fought  a  celebrated  battle  be- 
tween the  American  army,  under  General  Taylor,  and  the  Mexicans, 
under  General  Santa  Anna.  It  is  sometimes  called  Angostura  after  the 
plateau  upon  which  Taylor  drew  up  his  army.  This  battle  lasted  two 
days,  February  22,  23,  1847,  was  attended  with  considerable  loss  on  both 
sides,  and  remained  undecided  until  late  in  the  second  day,  when 
Taylor,  by  concentrating  his  batteries  against  the  enemy's  center,  and 
ordering  his  riflemen  to  cover  his  right  flank,  gained  a  complete 
victory.  The  first  day's  fighting  had  been  confined  to  unsuccessful 
attempts  by  the  Mexicans  to  drive  Taylor  from  his  position  on  Angos- 
tura heights.  Hostilities  were  suspended  during  the  night,  the  two 
armies  suffering  from  the  intense  cold.  The  battle  was  nearly  lost  to 
the  Americans  at  one  time.  Lane  and  O'Brien  in  charge  of  three  guns 
and  the  second  Indiana  volunteers  were  driven  from  their  position 
along  the  southern  ridge  of  the  heights,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat  to 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  107 

Buena  Vista.  Taylor  arrived  in  time  to  cover  their  retreat  with  the 
second  dragoons  and  the  Mississippi  riflemen.  Santa  Anna's  poor 
generalship  alone  prevented  Taylor's  defeat.  Number  engaged,  Amer- 
icans 4,769,  Mexicans  17,000. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  was  founded  in  1801,  and  became  a  military  post  in 
1813,  when  it  was  burned  by  the  British.  It  was  rebuilt  after  the  war 
and  in  1832  attained  the  rank  of  a  city.  After  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal  in  1825  its  growth  was  rapid.  It  is  selected  as  the  seat  of  the 
Pan-American  exposition  1901. 

Bulacan,  a  city  of  10,000  population,  situated  at  the  head  of  Manila 
Bay,  Philippine  Islands. 

Bull  Run,  Va,,  the  scene  of  two  important  battles  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  first  great  battle  of  the  war  took  place  July  21,  1861,  between  Mc- 
Dowell, commanding  29,000  Union  soldiers,  and  Johnson  and  Beaure- 
gard, leading  28,000  Confederates.  Six  Confederate  brigades  lay 
posted  along  the  stream,  and  upon  these  McDowell  resolved  to  begin  his 
attack.  Tyler  was  sent  across  the  stone  bridge  to  threaten  the  Con- 
federate front.  Hunter  and  Heintzelman  were  dispatched  to  make  a 
detour  and  attack  the  enemy's  flank  and  rear.  But  Johnston  had  also 
decided  to  hasten  the  attack  in  order  to  anticipate  Patterson's  arrival 
with  reinforcements  for  McDowell.  However,  the  latter  moved  first, 
so  Johnston  acted  on  the  defensive.  Tyler  and  Hunter  were  slow  in 
their  movements  ;  still  by  midday  McDowell  had  turned  the  Con- 
federate's left  and  uncovered  the  stone  bridge.  The  Union  troops 
followed  the  defeated  Confederates  across  Young's  Branch,  but  were 
held  in  check  on  the  plateau  beyond  by  Jackson,  who  here  acquired 
his  sobriquet  of  "  Stonewall,"  until  Johnston  and  Beauregard  had  time 
to  come  up  and  rally  the  disordered  ranks.  At  about  three  o'clock, 
when  both  armies  were  exhausted  by  fighting,  the  arrival  of  2,300  fresh 
Confederate  troops,  under  Kirby  Smith,  who  had  escaped  Patterson, 
turned  the  tide.  McDowell  was  driven  from  the  plateau,  which  had 
been  the  object  of  contention  for  three  hours.  McDowell  in  vain  tried 
to  cover  his  retreat  with  800  regulars.  There  was  a  panic  which  spread 
almost  to  Washington. — Bull  Run  the  second,  or  the  battle  of  Manassas, 
occurred  August  29,  30,  1862.  General  Pope,  commanding  a  Union 
army  of  40,000  men,  advanced  to  attack  Jackson,  who  was  awaiting  re- 
inforcements from  Lee  at  Bristoe  station.  McDowell  had  been  dis- 
patched to  intercept  Lee's  conjunction  with  Jackson,  but  he  was  imme- 
diately recalled  and  ordered  to  join  Pope  at  Manassas  Junction.  Jackson, 
finding  the  way  open,  immediately  retired  toward  Manassas  Junction  and 
took  a  strange  position  near  Gains ville  behind  an  old  railroad  grading. 


108  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Pope  ordered  Sigel  to  attack  him  at  daylight  August  29.  All  the  morning 
a  duel  of  batteries  continued  and  Pope,  arriving  about  noon  from  Centre- 
ville,  found  both  armies  badly  cut  up.  Pope  expected  McDowell  and 
Porter  to  join  him.  The  former  arrived  with  27,000  men,  but  the  latter 
never  came.  The  battle  continued  until  sunset,  Jackson  seeming  several 
times  on  the  point  of  retreating  before  such  heavy  odds.  But  Long- 
street  came  up  and  the  fighting  ceased  for  the  night.  It  began  again 
the  next  day.  The  Confederates  made  a  brilliant  counter-charge  and 
swept  Pope  from  the  field. 

Bullock,  Rufus  B.,  born  in  1834,  was  Governor  of  Georgia  from 
1869  to  1870,  when  he  resigned  because  of  the  opposition  to  negro  rep- 
resentatives in  the  Legislature,  whose  rights  he  supported. 

Bulwer,  Sir  William  Henry  T,.  J$.  (1801-1872),  was  British  Min- 
ister to  the  United  States  from  1849  to  1852.  He  negotiated  with  Senator 
John  M.  Clayton  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  which  related  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans 
by  canal  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  each  party  guaranteeing  neutrality 
of  communication. 

Bum-boat,  a  small  boat  used  to  convey  provisions  and  other  articles 
from  harbor  ports  to  vessels  at  anchor.  They  are  common  in  the  har- 
bors of  Cuba  and  the  Philippines. 

Buncombe,  effusive  rhetoric  irrelevant  to  the  business  in  hand.  It 
is  said  that,  many  years  ago,  a  member  of  Congress  from  Buncombe 
County,  N.  C,  replied,  on  being  taxed  with  the  irrelevancy  of  his 
speech,  "  I  am  speaking  not  for  you,  but  for  Buncombe." 

Bunker  Hill,  Battle  of  (June  17,  1775).  After  the  investment  of 
Boston  by  the  Continental  troops  it  became  evident  that  Boston  was  un- 
tenable unless  the  surrounding  heights  were  secured.  This  General 
Gage  intended  to  do.  The  committee  of  safety  anticipated  him  and 
sent  1,200  men  under  Colonel  Prescott  to  seize  and  fortify  Bunker  Hill, 
on  the  night  of  the  sixteenth.  Breed's  Hill,  a  more  advanced  though 
less  protected  position,  was  fortified  instead.  Dawn  disclosed  the 
American  works  to  the  British  and  a  lively  cannonade  was  directed 
upon  the  works.  About  three  p.  m.,  3,000  British  veterans  under  Howe 
and  Pigott  charged  up  the  hill,  but  a  deadly  volley  awaited  both.  They 
gave  way  and  retreated.  In  the  meantime  the  village  of  Charlestown 
had  been  fired  by  shells  from  the  fleet.  Again  the  British  charged. 
The  Americans  reserved  fire  until  they  were  within  thirty  yards.  Again 
the  British  ranks  gave  way  before  the  fatal  fire.  Owing  to  confusion 
at  headquarters  neither  reinforcements  nor  ammunition  were  promptly 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  109 

dispatched  to  the  American  troops.  About  five  o'clock  the  British 
charged  again.  They  were  at  first  shaken  by  the  American  fire,  but  the 
latter's  cartridges  were  soon  spent  and  after  a  stubborn  hand-to-hand 
fight  they  left  the  field.  The  most  lamented  among  the  slain  was  the 
gallant  General  Warren,  who  had  fought  as  a  volunteer  in  the  ranks. 
1,054  of  the  British,  or  over  one-third  of  their  whole  number,  perished;  of 
the  Americans  about  a  quarter,  or  449.  Bunker  Hill  is  thus  one  of  the 
bloodiest  battles  of  modern  times.  The  immediate  result  was  the  pos- 
session of  a  strategic  point  by  the  English  ;  upon  the  Americans  its 
moral  effect  was  to  encourage  their  spirits  and  to  inspire  general  respect 
for  their  soldierly  ability. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument.  The  corner-stone  was  laid  June  17,  1825, 
by  Lafayette,  before  an  enormous  and  enthusiastic  crowd,  among  them 
many  aged  survivors  of  the  battle  fought  fifty  years  before,  who  had 
gathered  from  far  and  near.  After  the  singing  of  "Old  Hundred," 
Daniel  Webster  delivered  his  famous  address.  The  monument  was 
completed  June  17,  1843,  and  again  Webster  delivered  the  address  be- 
fore a  tumultuously  appreciative  audience,  among  them  President  Tyler 
and  some  of  his  Cabinet. 

Burchard,  Samuel  D.  (1812-1891),  lecturer  and  preacher  in  New 
York.  During  the  political  campaign  of  1884  he  made  a  speech  at  a 
"ministers'  meeting  "  called  by  the  Republican  party  managers,  during 
which  he  stigmatized  the  Democrats  by  the  words  "  Rum,  Romanism, 
and  Rebellion.  "  This  helped  to  lose  the  Republicans  the  election,  by 
alienating  the  Roman  Catholic  vote. 

Bureau  of  American  Republics.  A  bureau  established  under  the 
recommendation  of  the  Pan-American  Conference  of  October,  1889,  for 
the  prompt  collection  and  distribution  of  commercial  information  con- 
cerning the  American  Republics. 

Bureaus  of  I/abor  Statistics.  The  first  such  government  office 
established  was  that  of  Massachusetts,  created  by  Act  of  June  23,  1869. 
Pennsylvania  established  one  in  1872.  Connecticut  had  one  from  1873 
to  1875,  and  re-established  it  in  1885.  That  of  Ohio  was  established  in 
1877,  that  of  New  Jersey  in  1878,  those  of  Indiana,,  Missouri  and  Illinois 
in  1879,  those  of  California,  Wisconsin,  New  York  and  Michigan  in 
1883,  those  of  Maryland  and  Iowa  in  1884.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor 
was  established  by  Act  of  June  27,  1884  ;  an  Act  of  June  13,  1888,  sub- 
stituted the  Department  of  Labor.  Since  then  thirteen  other  States 
have  organized  such  bureaus. 

Burgesses,  House  of,  the  lower  branch  of  the  Colonial  Legislature 


no  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

of  Virginia.  The  first  House  of  Burgesses  was  summoned  in  1619.  The 
House  met  at  Jamestown  in  the  seventeenth  century,  at  Williamsburg 
in  the  eighteenth.  It  consisted  of  two  burgesses  from  each  county,  and 
one  from  each  of  three  towns  and  William  and  Mary  College.  The 
printed  journals  begin  with  the  year  1732.  The  forms  of  procedure 
were  those  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  last  session  of  the  burgesses 
occurred  in  1774. 

Burgoyne,  John  (1723-1792),  one  of  the  chief  British  commanders 
in  the  Revolutionary  War,  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  an  army  officer  ;  he  reached  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general,  served 
in  Canada  in  the  early  stages  of  the  war,  and  was  in  1777  intrusted  with 
the  command  of  a  large  force  which  was  to  pierce  the  American  center. 
He  ascended  Lake  Champlain  and  captured  the  forts  without  great 
difficulty.  But  his  march  from  the  head  of  the  lake  to  Fort  Edward  was 
delayed  by  Schuyler's  obstructions,  while  the  auxiliary  force  under  St. 
Leger  came  to  grief,  and  Baum's  diversion  into  Vermont  was  defeated 
at  Bennington.  He  fought  the  first  indecisive  battle  of  Stillwater  with 
Gates'  army  September  19,  1777  ;  in  the  second  battle  on  October  7  he 
was  defeated,  and  was  obliged  to  surrender  with  nearly  6,000  men  at 
Saratoga  October  17.  He  returned  to  England  the  next  year  and  pub- 
lished in  1780  his  "State  of  the  Expedition."  He  was  an  author  of 
some  note,  composing  a  number  of  poems  and  comedies. 

Burke,  Edmund  (1 729-1 797),  the  English  orator  and  statesman, 
was  born  in  Ireland,  educated  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  gained 
attention  in  literature,  especially  as  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  ' '  The 
Sublime  and  Beautiful. ' '  After  some  years  spent  as  private  secretary 
he  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1766.  In  the  exciting 
debates  attendant  on  the  American  Revolution  he  took  a  leading  part. 
He  favored  constitutional  order,  freedom,  championed  the  colonies,  and 
held  the  first  rank  as  an  orator  and  political  thinker.  In  1774  he  de- 
livered a  great  speech  on  American  taxation,  and  the  next  year  favored 
strongly  a  policy  of  conciliation.  In  1782,  and  again  in  1783,  he  held  the 
office  of  paymaster  of  the  forces,  and  draughted  Fox's  East  India  Bill. 
Burke  led  the  attack  on  Warren  Hastings  in  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1786-87,  and  in  1788  was  one  of  the  managers  in  that  statesman's  impeach- 
ment and  made  a  celebrated  speech.  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution  Burke,  as  a  lover  of  order  and  conservatism,  broke 
with  his  friend  Fox,  denounced  the  Revolution,  and  published  his 
"Reflections"  on  that  event.  The  best  biographies  are  by  Prior  and 
Morley. 

Burkesville,  Va.     Here  Sheridan,  pursuing  the  Confederates,  de* 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  in 

feated  and  fleeing  from  the  battlefield  of  Five  Forks,  overtook,  April  3, 
1865,  a  body  of  their  cavalry.  They  endeavored  to  make  a  stand  and 
receive  the  Federal  assault,  but  in  vain.  Sheridan  dispersed  them, 
taking  many  prisoners.  This  battle  is  to  be  remembered  in  connection 
with  the  close  of  the  campaign  around  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Burlingame,  Anson  (1820-1870),  rose  to  prominence  in  Massa- 
chusetts as  a  lawyer  and  politician.  In  1855-61  he  was  Republican 
Congressman,  aud  in  1861  he  was  sent  as  U.  S.  Minister  to  China.  His 
diplomatic  services  there  were  so  important  that  in  1868  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Chinese  Government  a  special  envoy  to  the  United  States 
and  Europe.  He  negotiated  at  Washington  in  1868  the  Burlingame 
Treaty  with  China,  and  effected  treaties  with  England,  Prussia,  Holland 
and  other  European  countries. 

Burnet,  David  G.  (1789-1870),  was  active  in  securing  the  inde- 
pendence of  Texas.  He  was  chosen  provisional  president  of  the  re- 
public in  1836  and  afterward  served  as  vice-president. 

Burns  Case  (1854),  the  last  great  fugitive  slave  case  in  Boston. 
Burns  was  an  escaped  slave  of  a  Virginia  planter  and  was  arrested  in 
Boston  on  the  charge  of  theft.  He  was  then  claimed  as  a  fugitive. 
This  aroused  the  people  to  fever-excitement,  and  large  meetings,  ad- 
dressed by  Wendell  Phillips  and  Theodore  Parker,  were  held  in  Faneuil 
and  Meionaon  Halls  on  the  evening  of  May  26.  The  audience,  refus- 
ing to  wait  until  morning,  armed  themselves  with  clubs  and  axes  and 
broke  into  the  jail,  but  were  driven  away  by  a  pistol  shot.  Burns  was 
tried  and  the  order  for  his  rendition  issued.  He  was  conveyed  to  the 
cutter  ' '  Morris, ' '  surrounded  by  a  large  military  force.  The  streets 
were  thronged  and  many  of  the  houses  were  draped  in  black.  Indict- 
ments for  riot  brought  against  Phillips,  Parker  and  others  were  quashed 
on  technical  grounds. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett  (1824-1881),  commander  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.  He  invented  a  breech- 
loading  rifle,  retired  from  the  army  and  engaged  in  business.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  led  a  brigade  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  was  in 
1862  placed  in  command  of  an  expedition  to  North  Carolina  ;  this  force 
captured  Roanoke  Island  on  February  8,  and  Newbern  March  14.  He 
was  now  made  a  corps  commander  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and 
rendered  important  service  at  the  battle  of  South  Mountain  and  at 
Antietam,  where  he  held  the  stone  bridge  against  repeated  attacks.  In 
November,  1862,  he  succeeded  McClellan  in  command  of  the  army. 
On  December  13  was  fought  the  fatal  and  ill-advised  battle  of  Fred- 


ii2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ericksburg,  and  in  January,  1S63,  General  Burnside  was  superseded  by 
Hooker.  Having  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  department 
of  the  Ohio  he  kept  down  treason,  and  was  later  in  1863  besieged  in 
Knoxville  by  Longstreet.  Pie  acted  as  corps  commander  in  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  at  the  Wilderness,  Cold  Harbor,  Petersburg,  etc.  1* 
1866-68  he  was  Republican  Governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1875-8' 
U.  S.  Senator  from  the  same  State. 

Burr,  Aaron  (February  6,  1756 — September  14,  1836),  was  born  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  and  was  the  grandson  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  grad* 
uated  at  Princeton  in  1772,  and  joined  the  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution.  He  served  in  Arnold's  famous  expedition  through  Main* 
to  Canada,  and  afterward  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  Studying  law, 
he  rose  soon  to  a  position  among  the  leaders  of  the  New  York  bar,  an<? 
was  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  Attorney-General  of  the  State 
Of  fascinating  manners  and  unscrupulous  principles,  he  rapidly  becamt 
a  political  power  in  the  State  and  the  nation.  He  was  Republican  U.  S 
Senator  from  New  York  in  1791-97,  and  later  was  a  member  of  the  Ne\* 
York  Assembly.  His  prominence  and  power  in  the  Republican  party 
caused  him  to  be  a  formidable  aspirant  for  the  Presidency.  In  the 
exciting  contest  of  1800-01  Colonel  Burr  and  Jefferson  each  received 
seventy-three  electoral  votes  for  President,  and  the  matter  was  left  to 
the  House  of  Representatives,  which  finally  chose  Jefferson  for  the  first 
and  Burr  for  the  second  place.  Burr  was  accordingly  Vice-President  in 
1801-05.  A  bitter  personal  and  political  rivalry  with  Hamilton  led  to  a 
duel  between  the  two  at  Weehawken,  July  11,  1804,  in  which  Hamilton 
was  mortally  wounded.  On  his  retirement  from  the  Vice-Presidency 
Burr  engaged  in  mysterious  and  wide-reaching  schemes,  the  purpose  of 
which  was  apparently  the  formation  of  an  independent  State  in  the 
Southwest.  These  schemes  were  arrested  by  a  proclamation  of  Presi- 
dent Jefferson  in  October,  1806,  and  in  the  following  year  Burr  was 
tried  for  treason  at  Richmond,  but  was  acquitted.  After  some  years  of 
wandering  in  Europe  he  returned  to  New  York  to  the  practice  of  law, 
but  died  in  obscurity  and  poverty  at  Staten  Island. 

Burrites,  in  New  York  politics,  the  followers  of  Aaron  Burr,  a  faction, 
chiefly  of  Democrats,  organized  by  him  through  his  connection  with 
the  Tammany  Society.  In  1807  they  coalesced  with  the  Lewisites, 
adherents  of  Morgan  Lewis,  to  form  the  body  called  "  Martling  men," 
later  Bucktails. 

Burritt,  I$lihu  (1810-1879),  while  pursuing  the  trade  of  a  black- 
smith, acquired  proficiency  in  many  languages.  He  established  the 
Christian  Citizen  in  1842  in  the  interests  of  international  peace,  and  the 


From  the  Original  by  Q.  W.  Peteie. 


AMERICAN   MOUNTED   INFANTRY  INTERCEPTED  BY  IGORRATES. 


Next  to  the  Tagals  the  Igorrates  are  the  largest  and  most  powerful 
tribe  in  the  Philippines.  Although  hostile  to  the  Tagals,  they  made  war 
against  United  States  authority  until  April,  1900,  when  they  acknowledged 
our  supremacy  and  joined  forces  against  their  old  enemy.  The  Igorrates 
are  a  distinct  race,  to  be  found  chiefly  in  the  mountain  districts  of 
Bangued,  L,epanto  and  Bontoes,  Luzon  Island.  Their  habits  are  repulsive, 
but  they  nevertheless  possess  some  merits,  for  they  are  industrious  agri- 
tulturists,  skilled  in  metal  working  and,  quite  unlike  the  licentious  Malays, 
they  are  monogamists,  and  generally,  virtuous,  inflicting  severe  punish- 
ment for  infidelity.  Their  love  of  freedom  is  a  passion  which  prompted 
them  to  resist  many  efforts  of  Spain  to  subjugate  them,  and  for  nearly  two 
centuries  they  warred  against  Spanish  power.  Their  final  submission  was 
made  in  1829,  but  they  have  ever  since  retained  a  large  measure  of  inde- 
pendence, yielding  obedience,  however,  to  the  Catholic  Church,  of  which 
they  are  nearly  all  devout  members. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  113 

abolition  of  slavery.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  compensated 
emancipation  of  slaves.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Birmingham  from  1865 
to  1870.  He  wrote  "Handbook  of  the  Nations  "  and  "  Walks  in  the 
Black  Country." 

Burroughs,  George,  a  prominent  preacher  at  Salem  and  Portland, 
who  was  executed  in  1692  on  a  charge  of  practicing  witchcraft. 

Burrows,  William  (1785-1813),  was  acting  lieutenant  in  Preble's 
squadron  during  the  Tripolitan  War.  He  commanded  the  '•  Enter- 
prise," which  captured  the  "  Boxer  "  in  1813,  but  was  killed  during  the 
engagement. 

Bussey,  Cyrus,  born  in  1833,  commanded  a  brigade  at  Pea  Ridge. 
He  was  chief  ot  cavalry  at  Vicksburg,  and  defeated  General  Jackson  at 
Canton  in  1863.  In  1864  he  commanded  and  organized  the  Department 
of  Kansas. 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.  (1795-1858),  was  a  New  York  district  attor- 
ney from  1821  to  1825.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  three  commis- 
sioners to  revise  the  statutes  of  New  York  in  1825.  He  was  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States  in  the  Cabinets  of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren 
from  1833  to  1838.  He  was  also  acting  Secretary  of  War  from  1836  to 
1837,  and  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  "  Albany  Regency." 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin  (November  5,  1818— January  11, 1893), 
was  graduated  at  Waterville  College  in  Maine  in  1838.  He  became  a 
successful  lawyer  at  Lowell  and  was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  House 
of  Representatives  and  Senate.  In  i860  he  was  delegate  to  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention  at  Charleston  and  withdrew  from  the  ad- 
journed convention  which  met  at  Baltimore.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  and  took  possession  of  Balti- 
more. Becoming  a  major-general,  he  commanded  in  Eastern  Virginia, 
where  he  lost  the  battle  ©f  Big  Bethel  in  June,  1861,  and  issued  the 
famous  order  referring  to  the  negroes  as  contraband  of  war.  Later  in 
the  year  he  captured  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark.  In  April,  1862,  he  co- 
operated with  Farragut  in  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  and  was  appointed 
commandant  in  that  city.  It  was  here  that  he  attracted  wide  attention 
by  his  stern  measures  for  the  preservation  of  order,  and  roused  consid- 
erable criticism  as  well  as  earned  the  undying  hatred  of  many  of  the 
Southerners.  In  1864,  as  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  James,  he  co- 
operated with  Grant  in  the  advance  on  Richmond.  His  military  career 
closed  with  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  1864. 
He  was  a  Republican  Congressman  from  Massachusetts,  1867-75  and 
1877-79.  I*e  failed  in  his  attempts  to  secure  the  Republican  nomination 
Vol.  V.— 8 


H4  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1871  and  1872,  and  in  1878  and  1879 
he  was  defeated  as  the  Greenback  candidate.  He  was,  however,  elected 
in  1882  by  the  Democrats  as  one  of  the  "tidal  wave"  Governors  and 
aroused  considerable  excitement  in  1883  by  his  administration.  He 
failed  of  a  re-election  and  in  1884  ran  for  President  as  the  Greenback 
and  Anti -Monopoly  candidate.  Besides  his  reputation  as  politician  and 
general  he  was  widely  known  as  a  skillful  lawyer.  He  wrote  an  auto- 
biography entitled  " Butler's  Book." 

Butler,  John,  died  in  1794,  He  commanded  the  Indians  in  Sir 
William  Johnson's  Niagara  campaign  in  1759  and  in  the  Montreal 
expedition  of  1760.  He  joined  the  British  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lution and  conducted  predatory  warfare  in  New  York.  He  incited  the 
famous  "Wyoming  massacre"  in  1778,  and  engaged  in  Johnson's 
raid  on  the  Schoharie  and  Mohawk  regions  in  1780. 

Butler,  Marion,  see  appendix,  page  477. 

Butler,  Matthew  C,  born  in  1836,  became  a  major-general  in  the 
Confederate  service.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
as  a  Democrat  from  1877  to  1895.  Major-general  of  Volunteers,  1898, 
commissioner  on  Spanish  evacuation  of  Cuba.     See  appendix,  page  476. 

Butler,  William  Orlando  (1791-1880),  was  an  officer  in  the  War 
of  181 2.  In  1839-43  he  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from  Kentucky 
and  ran  unsuccessfully  in  1844  for  Governor  of  that  State.  He  was  a 
major-general  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  distinguished  at  the  taking 
of  Monterey  in  1846.  He  was  in  1848  the  unsuccessful  Democratic  can- 
didate for  Vice-President  on  the  ticket  with  General  Cass. 

Butler,  ^ebulon  (i73I-i795)>  served  in  New  Jersey  from  1777  to 
1778.  He  was  commander  at  Wyoming,  Pennsylvania,  at  the  time  of 
the  massacre.  He  served  with  distinction  in  General  Sullivan's  Indian 
expedition  of  1779. 

Butterfield,  Daniel,  born  in  1831,  led  a  brigade  at  Hanover  Court 
House  and  Gaines'  Mills.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Fredericksburg 
and  was  chief  of  staff  at  Chancellorsville,  Gettysburg,  Lookout  Moun- 
tain and  Missionary  Ridge.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Resaca,  Dal- 
las and  Kenesaw.  He  resigned  in  1869  an<l  was  for  some  time  Sub- 
Treasurer  of  the  United  States  in  New  York. 

Butterworth,  Benjamin,  born  in  1822,  represented  Ohio  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1878  to  1882.  He  was  Commissioner 
of  Patents  in  1883  and  1S97,  and  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1884  to 
1886.     Died  1898. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


C. 


Ii5 


Cabal,  a  term  that  is  used  to  denote  an  intriguing,  factitious  party 
in  the  State,  who  for  political  expediency  modify  or  sacrifice  their 
principle  to  gain  personal  ends.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  to  be  found 
in  the  initials  of  the  English  Ministry  of  Charles  II.,  viz.,  Clifford, 
Ashley,  Buckingham,  Arlington  and  Lauderdale. 

Cabesa  de  Vaca,  Alvar  Nunes  (1507-1559),  Spanish  explorer, 
went  with  Narvaez  to  Florida  in  1527,  and  accompanied  him  on  his 
westward  march  and  voyage.  He  was  wrecked  near  Matagorda  Bay  in 
Texas,  and  captured  by  the  Indians,  among  whom  he  became  a  medi- 
cine-man. Finally  escaping,  he  reached  Mexico  after  many  wander- 
ings, during  which  he  discovered  the  Rio  Grande.  He  was  afterward 
the  first  explorer  of  Paraguay. 

Cabinet.  The  Constitution,  without  providing  distinctly  for  a 
Cabinet,  authorizes  the  President  to  consult  the  heads  of  the  depart- 
ments. Washington  thus  consulted  his  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War  and  Attorney-General.  The  secretary- 
ship of  the  navy  was  instituted  in  1798,  and  its  incumbent  was  at  once 
treated  as  a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  The  Postmasters-General  before 
1829  were  not.  The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  became  such  at  once 
upon  his  institution  in  1849,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  similarly  in 
1889. 

Cabot,  George  (1751-1823),  statesman,  entered  Harvard,  but  left  to 
go  to  sea,  and  became  master  mariner  before  he  was  of  age.  At  twenty- 
five  he  was  chosen  to  the  Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress.  In  1788 
he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Convention  that  adopted  the  Federal 
Constitution.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Massachusetts,  1791-96,  and 
was  President  Adams'  first  choice  for  Secretary  of  the  Navy  when  that 
department  was  organized  in  1798.  He  was  a  leading  Federalist,  an 
able  coadjutor  of  Hamilton,  and  a  high  authority  in  political  economy. 
He  was  chosen  president  of  the  celebrated  Hartford  Convention  in 
1814. 

Cabot,  John,  the  founder  of  the  English  claim  to  North  America, 
was  born  at  Genoa,  settled  in  Venice  as  a  merchant  and  mariner,  and 
removed  to  Bristol  in  England  about  1490.  In  May,  1497,  he  sailed 
from  Bristol  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  under  the  authority  of  letters 
patent  from  the  king,  Henry  VII.     He  discovered  a  region  which  was 


n6  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

supposed  to  be  the  coast  of  China,  returned  to  England  with  the  news, 
and  received  from  the  frugal  king  the  sum  of  ten  pounds.  The  next 
year  he  sailed  again  and  explored  the  coast  of  North  America.  The 
exact  extent  of  his  voyages  is  uncertain,  but  he  probably  visited  Labra- 
dor, the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  coast  of  New  England,  south- 
ward perhaps  to  Cape  Cod.  After  the  second  voyage  he  disappears 
from  history. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  the  son  of  John,  was  born  in  Bristol  or  Venice 
about  1474,  and  died  in  London  about  1557.  He  probably  accompanied 
his  father  on  the  latter's  first  voyage  to  America,  and  may  have  suc- 
ceeded him  as  commander  in  the  second  expedition.  He  was  subse- 
quently in  the  service  of  Spain,  and  returned  late  in  life  to  England. 
The  voyages  of  the  two  Cabots  in  1497  and  1498  laid  the  foundation  of 
England's  claim  to  North  America. 

Cacique,  a  designation  given  to  the  chiefs  of  Indian  tribes  in  Cuba 
and  other  West  India  Islands  and  of  South  America  at  the  time  of  the 
Columbian  discoveries  and  Spanish  conquests. 

Cadillac,  Antoine  de  la  Mothe,  born  1660  of  noble  French  fam- 
ily. In  1694  Frontenac  appointed  him  commander  of  Michilimackinac. 
July  24,  1 701,  with  fifty  settlers  and  fifty  soldiers  he  founded  Detroit. 
In  1707  he  reduced  the  Miamis  to  subjection.  In  171 1  he  was  made 
Governor  of  Louisiana.  In  17 14  he  established  a  post  in  the  Natchez 
country.     In  171 7  he  returned  to  France  and  died  soon  after. 

Cadwalader,  John  (1 742-1 786),  was  a  member  of  the  Philadelphia 
Committee  of  Safety.  He  was  a  brigadier-general  at  Trenton  and  a 
volunteer  at  Brandy  wine  and  Germantown.  He  wounded  General 
Conway,  the  noted  conspirator  against  Washington,  in  a  duel. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell  (March  18,  1782 — March  31,  1850),  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  near  Abbeville  in  South  Caro- 
lina. He  graduated  at  Yale,  studied  law,  and  developed  qualities  of 
statesmanship  at  an  early  period.  In  181 1  he  entered  the  House  of 
Representatives  as  member  from  South  Carolina,  and  became  prominent 
at  once  as  a  leader  of  the  younger  element  of  the  Democratic  party  ;  he 
advocated  the  war  against  Great  Britain,  and  was  foremost  in  the  con- 
troversy over  the  United  States  Bank.  He  left  the  House  for  the  War 
Department  in  1817,  and  served  throughout  Monroe's  administration. 
In  1824  he  was  elected  Vice-President,  and  served  from  1825  with 
Adams.  Again  elected  in  1828,  he  continued  in  office,  this  time  with 
Jackson,  and  between  these  two  great  Democratic  leaders  a  bitter  feel- 
ing of  opposition  soon  arose.     In  the  Nullification  trouble  which  was 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  117 

now  developing,  Calhoun's  abilities  and  views  made  him  the  leader  on 
the  side  of  his  native  State.  He  resigned  his  office  in  1832,  and 
immediately  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  was  the  champion  of 
the  "States  Rights"  men.  His  career  in  the  Senate  was  interrupted 
for  a  short  period,  when  in  1844-45  he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Tyler's 
administration.  During  this  time  he  concluded  a  treaty  of  annexation 
with  Texas.  Retiring  from  the  Cabinet  in  1845  he  re-entered  the 
Senate,  resuming  the  leadership  of  the  Southern  Democrats.  It  was 
during  this  last  term  that  his  severe  controversy  with  Benton  occurred. 
Calhoun  died  at  Washington  while  the  compromise  measures  of  1850 
were  pending. 

California  was  formed  from  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848.  The 
name  originated  from  a  Spanish  romance  of  152 1.  The  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia was  explored  by  the  Spaniards  Cabrillo  (1542)  and  Ferrelo 
(1543),  and  by  the  Englishman  Drake  (1579),  who  named  the  country 
New  Albion.  Two  hundred  years  later  (1769)  Franciscan  monks 
founded  a  mission  at  San  Diego  and  discovered  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  missions  in  1823  numbered  twenty-one  and  were  very 
wealthy.  The  priests  opposed  the  government  of  the  towns  which 
was  established  by  the  Mexican  Government  and  the  Mexican  Revolu- 
tion of  1822,  and  in  1834  the  mission  lands  were  divided.  In  1826  the 
first  American  emigrant  wagon-train  reached  California.  Before  the 
Mexican  War  the  United  States  Government  feared  that  England  in- 
tended to  seize  California,  and  accordingly  encouraged  the  inhabitants 
to  revolt  from  Mexico.  June  14,  1846,  the  American  settlers,  upon  the 
advice  of  Fremont,  proclaimed  a  republic,  and  Sloat,  in  command  of 
an  American  fleet,  occupied  Monterey  July  7.  By  the  treaty  of  Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo,  signed  February  2,  1848,  California  was  ceded  by  Mexico 
to  the  United  States.  On  the  nineteenth  of  the  preceding  month  gold 
had  been  discovered  near  Coloma.  By  the  close  of  1849  tne  population 
was  about  ioc,ooc.  A  State  Constitution  was  ratified  November  13, 
1849,  which  prohibited  slavey.  The  admission  of  California  as  a  free 
State  formed  part  of  Clay's  famous  "  Omnibus  Bill  "  of  1850  (Septem- 
ber 9).  For  ten  years  the  State  was  steadily  Democratic  until  the 
division  in  that  party  in  i860  gave  the  electoral  vote  to  the  Republicans, 
who  controlled  the  State  in  national  politics  until  1876.  In  1880  the 
Democratic  presidential  electors  were  elected  with  one  exception.  In 
1892  the  electors  were  again  Democratic.  In  State  politics  the  State 
has  always  been  very  doubtful.  Opposition  to  Chinese  immigration, 
monopoly  in  land,  and  the  influence  of  corporations  in  politics  have 
complicated  the  political  history  of  the  State.  The  population  in  1850 
was  92,597  ;  in  1890,  1,208,130. 


n8  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

California,  University  of,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  was  established  in  1868 
as  the  State  University  ;  formerly  known  as  the  College  of  California,  it 
was  chartered  in  1855. 

Callava,  the  Spanish  ex-Governor  of  Florida,  whom  Andrew  Jackson 
arrested  in  September,  1821,  because  he  refused  to  deliver  certain  papers, 
Florida  having  been  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  181 9.  The  papers 
were  seized  forcibly  and  Callava  was  then  released.  He  claimed  the 
privileges  of  a  Spanish  Commissioner,  but  could  get  no  hearing  from 
Jackson. 

Calumet,  the  peace  pipe  of  North  American  Indians,  was  usually 
made  of  clay  and  a  reed  stem  two  or  three  feet  long  decorated  with 
locks  of  women's  hair.  It  was  invariably  used  in  concluding  treaties, 
and  was  also  presented  to  strangers  as  a  mark  of  hospitality. 

Calvert,  Sir  George,  first  Lord  Baltimore  (1582-1632),  was  knighted 
by  James  I.  in  1617,  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1624  ;  was  much 
interested  in  the  colonization  of  the  New  World  ;  and  in  1632  obtained 
from  Charles  I.  a  patent  for  what  are  now  Delaware  and  Maryland.  He 
died  before  it  had  passed  the  Great  Seal,  and  it  was  issued  to  his  son 
Cecil. 

Calvert,  I^eonard  (i6o6?-i647),  Governor  of  Maryland,  was  sent  by 
his  brother  Cecil,  Lord  Baltimore,  to  found  the  Maryland  Colony,  which 
he  did  at  St.  Mary's,  May  27,  1634.  His  authority  was  disputed  by 
William  Claiborne,  who  at  once  began  hostilities  against  him,  and  it  was 
not  till  1647  that  his  possession  was  fully  established. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  was  settled  by  colonists  under  Governor 
Winthrop  in  1630,  and  first  called  Newton.  The  American  army 
occupied  Cambridge  during  the  period  while  the  British  held  Boston. 
The  city  was  incorporated  in  1846.  Harvard  College  was  founded  here 
in  1636. 

Cambridge  Platform,  a  system  of  church  government  drawn  up 
by  a  synod  at  Cambridge,  in  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  1648. 
The  Congregational  churches  differed  somewhat  at  that  time,  some 
inclining  to  Presbyterianism,  some  to  Independency.  The  synod 
reaffirmed  the  Westminster  Confession,  but  recommended  a  form 
of  church  discipline  which  prevails  now  in  the  Congregational  churches. 

Camden,  Charles  Pratt,  Earl  of  (1713-1794).  constantly  opposed 
the  American  policy  of  the  Rockingham  ministry.  His  sympathy  with 
the  colonies  continued  during  his  term  as  Lord  Chancellor  from  1766  to 
1770.     He  opposed   the  oppressive  colonial  policy  pursued  by  I^orc? 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  119 

North,  and,  on  account  of  his  liberal  policy  during  the  Revolution,  he 
was  very  popular  in  America. 

Camden,  Battle  of,  August  16,  1780.  On  his  appointment  to  com- 
mand in  the  South,  Gates  determined  to  seize  Camden,  S.  C.  He  made 
an  unwise  choice  of  roads,  so  that  his  army  was  exhausted  when  it  came 
to  face  the  enemy.  When  within  ten  miles  of  Camden  he  delayed  two 
days.  Meanwhile  Cornwallis  had  come  up  from  Charleston  to  assist 
Rawdon.  Gates  also  made  the  fatal  mistake  of  sending  out  400  of  his 
best  troops  on  a  foray.  With  3,052  troops,  only  1,400  of  whom  were 
regulars,  he  faced  2,000  British  veterans.  Both  parties  attempted  a  night 
march,  but  as  the  surprise  failed  they  waited  for  daylight.  The 
American  left  of  raw  militia  was  routed.  The  right  composed  of  Mary- 
land regulars  held  its  ground  bravely  until  it  was  attacked  vipon  its 
exposed  flank  and  forced  to  retire.  This  it  did  in  good  order.  Of  the 
Americans  1,000  were  killed  or  wounded  and  1,000  captured.  The  loss 
of  the  British  was  324.  It  was  a  clear  piece  of  bad  generalship  on  the 
part  of  Gates,  who  fled  precipitately  to  the  North. 

Cameron,  Simon  (1 799-1889),  politician,  worked  at  the  printer's 
trade  in  his  boyhood  and  youth.  In  1822  he  edited  a  newspaper  in 
Harrisburg.  He  soon  became  interested  and  acquired  wealth  in  banking 
and  railroad  construction — was  for  a  time  Adjutant-General  of  Penn- 
sylvania. He  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Pennsylvania  1845-1849,  acting 
with  the  Democrats.  Upon  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  in 
1S54  he  broke  with  that  party  and  joined  the  Republican  party  upon  its 
organization,  by  which  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1857.  He 
was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln  his  first  Secretary  of  War,  resigned 
in  1862  and  was  appointed  Minister  to  Russia.  He  was  again  U.  S. 
Senator  1867-1877. 

"  Camillus,"  a  literary  pseudonym  of  Alexander  Hamilton.  In  1795 
there  were  published  at  New  York  a  series  of  papers  called  a  "  Defense 
of  the  Treaty,"  Jay's  treaty  of  the  previous  year  with  Great  Britain. 
These  papers  were  nearly  all  .signed  "Camillus,"  tmt  were  written 
by  Hamilton. 

Campbell,  Alexander  (1788-1866),  theologian,  a  native  of  Ireland, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1S09.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  sect 
called  Disciples  of  Christ  or  Campbell U*?;  «od  of  Bethany  College  in 
West  Virginia. 

Campbell,  Sir   Archibald    (173Q-1791J,  British  soldier,   came  to 
Boston  as  lieutenant-colonel  in  1775,  led  an  expedition  in  1778  against 


120  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Savannah,  which  he  took  ;   and  took  Augusta,   Ga.,   in  January;  177^. 
He  was  afterward  Governor  of  Jamaica. 

Campbell,  Donald  (1735-1763),  British  soldier,  while  stationed  at 
Detroit  met  Pontiac  (then  besieging  it)  in  conference.  He  was  not 
permitted  to  return,  and  was  put  to  death  with  torture. 

Campbell,  George  W.  (1768-1848),  of  Tennessee,  statesman,  was 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1794,  was  Representative  in  Congress,  1803- 
1809,  and  was  chairman  of  Ways  and  Means  in  his  last  term.  He  was 
U.  S.  Senator  from  181 1  to  1814,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  ;  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1815.  In  1818  he  was 
appointed  Minister  to  Russia.     He  returned  in  1820. 

Campbell,  James  (1813-1893),  was  Attorney-General  for  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1852.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Pierce's  Cabinet  from 
1853  to  1857. 

Campbell,  John  A.  (1811-1889),  jurist,  was  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia  in  1826,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1829.  He  was  several  times  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Alabama. 
He  was  appointed  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1853,  resigned 
in  1861.  He  was  opposed  to  secession,  although  he  believed  in  the 
right.  He  was  Assistant  Secretary  of  War  of  the  Confederate  States 
and  was  one  of  the  peace  commissioners  who  met  President  Lincoln  at 
Fort  Monroe  in  February,  1865. 

Campbell,  William  (1745-1781),  soldier,  of  Virginia,  led  a  corps 
of  riflemen  at  King's  Mountain,  Guilford  Court  House  and  Kutaw 
Springs.  In  1778  he  was  a  commissioner  to  run  the  boundary -line  be- 
tween Virginia  and  the  Cherokee  country. 

Campbell's  Station,  Tenn.  Here,  November  16,  1863,  occurred 
a  sanguinary  conflict  between  Longstreet,  leading  about  35,000  Confed- 
erates, and  Burnside,  at  the  head  of  a  slightly  smaller  number  of 
Union  soldiers.  Bragg,  under  orders  from  Richmond,  had  ordered 
Longstreet  to  proceed  against  Burnside.  This  L,ongstreet  found  some 
difficulty  in  doing,  for  his  troops  were  in  a  deplorable  condition  for 
want  of  clothing  and  provisions.  Nevertheless  he  started  in  pursuit  of 
the  Federal  leader,  who  slowly  retreated  toward  Knoxville.  At  Camp- 
bell's Station  Longstreet  came  up  with  him  and  Burnside  turned  upon 
them,  firing  at  long  range  as  the  Confederates  advanced  over  the  un- 
dulating ground.  Unheeding  the  bullets  the  Confederates  pressed  for- 
ward until  at  close  range.  Then  they  opened  fire,  raking  the  Federal 
lines.  Burnside  was  forced  after  a  brief  fight  to  retire  to  Knoxville, 
where  I,ongstreet  followed  him  and  beleaguered  the  town. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  121 

Camp  Alleghany,  Va.  In  this  battle,  December  13,  1861,  the 
Federals,  numbering  3,000  troops  and  commanded  by  Milroy,  were  de- 
feated by  2,000  Confederates,  led  by  Edward  Johnston.  The  latter  had 
been  left  by  Jackson  in  charge  of  a  strong  position  on  a  high  bluff. 
Milroy  dispatched  Moody  to  attack  his  flank,  while  Jones  assaulted  his 
front.     The  losses  were  about  equal  on  both  sides. 

Camp  Cole,  Mo.  Here,  June  iS,  1S61,  a  half-organized  Unionist 
regiment  under  Captain  Cook  was  surprised,  while  asleep  in  a  barn,  by 
a  Confederate  force  under  Colonel  O'Kane,  and  completely  routed. 

Camp  Defiance,  Fla.  Here  General  Floyd,  in  the  Creek  War, 
was  attacked  January  27,  1814,  by  the  Indians.  The  attack  was  re- 
pulsed, but  at  so  heavy  a  loss  that  Floyd  had  to  fall  back.  The  Amer- 
ican loss  was  twenty-two  killed  and  147  wounded. 

Canada.  For  the  history  of  the  relations  of  the  English  colonies 
with  Canada  before  the  Revolution,  see  New  France  and  Quebec  Act. 
The  Continental  Congress  attempted,  but  without  avail,  to  induce  Can- 
ada to  take  part  in  the  Revolution.  In  1775  Montgomery  and  Arnold 
conducted  an  expedition  into  Canada,  which  ultimately  failed.  From 
Canada  Burgoyne  invaded  New  York  in  1777.  The  land  operations  of 
the  War  of  181 2  were  mainly  efforts  for  the  conquest  of  Canada.  Since 
then  our  relations  with  Canada  have  been  mostly  in  the  way  of  trade, 
though  the  sympathy  of  Americans  with  Canadian  insurgents  in  1837, 
the  Caroline  affair,  the  Aroostook  disturbances  and  the  Fenian  invasion 
of  1866  have  at  times  interrupted  friendliness.  The  treaty  of  1871 
provided  for  the  free  transit  of  certain  goods  into  Canada  through  the 
United  States  and  into  the  United  States  through  Canada.  There  has 
been  of  late  years  a  strong  movement  for  the  annexation  of  Canada  to 
the  United  States. 

Canals.  The  oldest  completed  canals  in  the  United  States  are  the 
South  Hadley  and  Montague  Canals  of  Massachusetts,  both  undertaken 
by  a  company  chartered  in  1792.  They  are  two  and  three  miles  long 
respectively,  passing  through  the  rapids  at  South  Fladley  and  the  Mon- 
tague Falls  on  the  Connecticut  River.  The  Middlesex  Canal,  connect- 
ing Boston  harbor  with  the  Merrimac,  was  completed  in  1808.  The 
Erie  Canal,  largest  and  most  important  in  this  country,  connecting  the 
Hudson  River  at  Albany  and  Troy  with  I^ake  Erie  at  Buffalo,  was  pro- 
jected by  DeWitt  Clinton,  and  begun  in  181 7.  It  was  completed  in 
1825.  The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  the  outcome  of  a  project  for 
improving  navigation  on  the  Potomac  River  by  General  Washington, 
was  begun  by  the  Board  of  Public  Works  of  Virginia  in  1820  and  com- 


122  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

pleted  in  1850.  It  extends  from  Georgetown  to  Cumberland,  184  miles. 
The  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  constructed  by  a  company  for  the 
transportation  of  coal,  was  completed  in  1829.  It  extends  from  Rondout 
to  Port  Jervis,  108  miles.  The  Schuylkill  Coal  and  Navigation  Canal, 
extending  from  Mill  Creek  to  Philadelphia,  108  miles,  was  begun  in 
1816  and  completed  in  1825.  The  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Canal, 
from  Easton  to  Coalport,  was  begun  in  1821  and  completed  in  1829. 
The  chief  period  of  canal  construction  was  from  about  1820  to  about 
1840,  when  railroads  began  to  supplant  them.  In  1880  there  were 
about  2,500  miles  of  canals  in  operation,  while  about  2,000  miles  had 
been  abandoned.  For  interoceanic  canals,  see  arts.  Panama  Canal  and 
Nicaragua  Canal. 

Canby,  Udward  R.  S.  (1819-1873),  of  Kentucky,  soldier,  served 
in  the  Florida  War  1839-1842,  and  received  a  brevet  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  for  services  in  Mexican  War.  In  1858  he  served  in  the  so-called 
Mormon  War.  In  1863  he  commanded  the  United  States  troops  in  the 
New  York  draft  riots  ;  assisted  by  Farragut's  fleet  he  captured  Mobile 
in  1865.  In  1873  he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  Modocs  while 
negotiating  a  treaty  of  peace. 

Cane  Ridge  Revival,  a  religious  revival  in  1799  and  1800,  the 
first  famous  one  in  the  United  States  after  the  ' '  Great  Awakening, ' ' 
along  the  western  frontier,  particularly  in  Kentucky.  It  was  begun  by 
the  inspired  preaching  of  two  brothers  from  Ohio,  who  addressed  a 
camp  meeting  on  the  Red  River,  and  made  numerous  enthusiastic  con- 
verts. At  the  Cane  Ridge  camp  meeting  of  1800  the  religious  enthu- 
siasm was  intense.     Converts  were  made  by  hundreds. 

Cane  River,  lya.,  a  battle  in  the  course  of  Banks'  expedition 
through  the  Southwest,  occurring  April  23,  1864.  The  Confederate 
General  Bee  was  stationed  along  Cane  River  with  8,000  troops,  when 
Emory,  Birge  and  Fessenden  of  Banks'  army  suddenly  flanked  his  posi- 
tion and  fell  heavily  upon  his  right.  The  movement  was  a  complete 
success.     The  Confederates  were  forced  to  abandon  their  position. 

Canning1,  George  (1 770-1827),  was  British  Secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs  from  1807  to  1809,  during  the  controversies  with  America  con- 
cerning the  Chesapeake  affair  and  the  difficulties  which  led  to  the  War 
of  18 1 2.  He  approved  the  British  orders-in-council  in  1807,  which  des- 
troyed American  neutral  commerce.  He  supported  the  War  of  1812. 
While  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs  from  1822  to  1827,  he  assented  to  the 
policy  expressed  in  the  Monroe  doctrine. 

Canning,  Stratford,  Viscount  Stratford  de  Redeliffe  (1786- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


123 


1880),  succeeded  Mr.  Bago  as  British  Minister  to  the  United  States  in  1820. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1823  and  arranged  a  treaty  which  was 
signed  by  the  British  and  American  Commissioners,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  U.  S.  Senate.  In  1830  he  framed  the  British  claims  in  the  American 
boundary  question  which  was  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  the  King 
of  the  Netherlands.  He  was  afterward  famous  as  Ambassador  to  Turkey 
at  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War. 

Canonicus  (1565  ?-i647),  an  Indian  chief,  king  of  the  Narragan- 
setts.  He  cordially  received  Roger  Williams  to  his  country  and  was 
ever  friendly  to  the  whites,  but  often  at  war  with  the  Pequots. 

Cape  Ann,  Settlement  at.  In  1625  the  Dorchester  Company 
attempted  to  plant  a  colony  near  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Glou- 
cester. Roger  Conant,  of  Plymouth,  and  a  number  of  other  persons 
were  invited  to  settle  there.  But  the  attempt  failed  in  a  short  time, 
and  this  resulted  in  the  dissolving  of  the  Dorchester  Company.  The 
Naumkeag  settlement  resulted. 

Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  a  National  storehouse  during  the  Civil  War. 
It  was  assailed  by  the  Confederate  Marmaduke,  April  26,  1863,  who 
although  he  commanded  8,000  men  was  obliged  to  retreat  before  Mc- 
Neil's garrison  of  2,000. 

Capital,  The.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  until  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  had  no 
fixed  place  of  holding  its  sessions,  but  met  on  various  occasions  at 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Lancaster,  York,  Princeton,  Annapolis,  Tren- 
ton and  New  York.  In  1783  after  a  long  debate  Congress  selected  a  site 
near  the  falls  of  the  Delaware,  and  in  1784  resolved  to  meet  at  New 
York  until  the  new  town  was  completed.  The  plans  for  the  capital 
were  not  carried  out  and  nothing  further  was  done  until  after  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution.  During  the  session  of  the  first  Congress  the 
matter  was  again  called  up,  and  after  a  lengthy  discussion  in  which 
sectional  jealousy  ran  high  an  act  was  passed  June  28,  1790,  selecting  a 
site  upon  the  Potomac.  Maryland  and  Virginia  ceded  land  for  this 
purpose.  By  this  act  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia  until  November, 
1800,  when  the  Government  removed  to  its  permanent  capital  (Wash- 
ington). 

Capitol.  The  corner-store  of  the  Capitol  building  at  Washington 
was  laid  by  President  Washington,  September  18,  1793.  The  north 
wing  was  completed  November  17,  1800.  The  south  wing  was  com- 
pleted in  1808,  and  the  interior  of  both  was  burned  by  the  British, 
August  24,  1814.     Reconstruction  was  begun  in  1815.     The  foundation 


i24  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

of  the  main  building  was  laid  March  24,  1818,  and  the  whole  was  com- 
pleted in  1827.  The  act  of  September  30,  1850,  provided  for  an  exten- 
sion. President  Fillmore  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the  extension  July  4, 
1851,  and  Daniel  Webster  delivered  the  address.  It  was  finished  in 
1867. 

Cardinal.  The  first  American  cardinal  was  John  McCloskey,  arch- 
bishop of  New  York,  who  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1875.  Upon  his 
death  in  1885  Archbishop  Gibbons,  of  Baltimore,  was  made  a  cardinal 
(1886). 

Carey,  Henry  C.  (1793-1879),  political  economist,  son  of  Mathew. 
In  1 82 1  he  established  the  firm  of  Carey  &  Lea,  which  became  the  lead- 
ing publishing  house  in  the  country.  He  withdrew  in  1835  and  devoted 
himself  to  political  economy,  on  which  subject  the  most  important  of 
his  writings  have  been  translated  into  other  languages.  He  viewed 
free  trade  as  the  ideal,  and  protection  as  the  means  of  attaining  it. 

Carleton,  Sir  Gny  (1724-1808),  British  soldier,  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  sieges  of  Louisbourg  and  Quebec.  He  was  Governor  of  the 
latter  from  1766  to  1770  and  from  1775  to  1778,  and  defended  it  against 
the  Americans  under  Montgomery  in  1775.  He  commanded  the  army 
that  invaded  New  York  in  1776,  and  fought  a  severe  battle  with  Arnold 
on  Lake  Champlain.  In  1782  he  superseded  Sir  Henry  Clinton  as  com- 
mander-in-chief. From  1786  to  1796,  as  Lord  Dorchester,  he  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Canada.     He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1777. 

Carlisle,  Frederick  Howard,  fifth  earl  of  (1748-1825),  British 
statesman.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  advocated  reconciliation  with 
America,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  over  in  1778  to  en- 
deavor to  effect  it. 

Carlisle,  John  Griffin,  born  in  1835  in  Kentucky,  served  in  the 
Legislature  of  the  State,  and  was  its  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1871-75. 
He  entered  the  National  House  of  Representatives  in  1877  as  Demo- 
cratic member  from  Kentucky,  and  became  widely  known  as  leader 
of  the  tariff-reforming  wing  of  the  party.  He  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  for  three  terms,  1883-89,  and  achieved  a  high  reputation  as  an 
able  parliamentarian  and  impartial  presiding  officer.  In  1890  he  was 
elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  whence,  in  1893,  he  was  called  to  enter  Presi- 
dent Cleveland's  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  After  leaving 
the  Cabinet  he  engaged  again  in  law  practice  at  Louisville. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  born  in  Scotland  in  1835,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1845.     He  is  the  largest  proprietor  of  iron  and  steel-making 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  125 

works  in  the  world  and  is  popularly  reputed  to  possess  a  fortune  of 
$300,000,000.  He  has  given  liberally  to  the  founding  of  libraries  and 
other  educational  institutions.  He  strongly  opposed  the  policy  of  an- 
nexing the  Philippine  Islands  against  the  consent  of  the  natives. 

Carnifex  Ferry,  W.  Va.  Here,  August  10,  1861,  General  Floyd, 
formerly  Buchanan's  Secretary  of  War,  was  attacked  and  compelled  to 
retreat  by  General  Rosecrans  of  McClellan's  army.  Floyd  had  super- 
seded Wise  in  the  command  of  the  Confederate  forces.  The  latter  fail- 
ing to  obey  orders  and  come  to  his  relief,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
Big  Sewell  Mountain.     The  numbers  engaged  on  either  side  were  small. 

"  Caroline.' '  In  1S36-37  there  was  a  strong  Republican  spirit  rife 
in  parts  of  Lower  Canada,  which  culminated,  in  December,  1837,  in 
an  insurrection  in  Toronto.  The  leaders  fled  to  the  United  States,  and 
one,  Mackenzie,  with  twenty-five  men,  among  them  some  citizens  of 
Buffalo,  whom  he  had  persuaded  to  join  him,  seized,  December  12,  1837, 
the  Canadian  Navy  Island  in  the  Niagara  River,  set  up  a  provisional 
government  and  issued  paper  money.  December  26,  a  party  of  Cana- 
dians crossed  the  Niagara  and  seized,  at  Schlosser,  on  the  American 
side,  the  "Caroline,"  a  steamer  in  the  service  of  the  rebels.  Several 
men  were  killed,  and  the  vessel  was  burned.  This  invasion  of  the 
American  lines  caused  great  indignation.  President  Van  Buren  issued 
a  proclamation  declaring  that  the  neutrality  laws  should  be  observed. 
The  New  York  militia  was  called  out  and  placed  under  the  command  of 
General  Scott.  The  rebels  finally  abandoned  Navy  Island  January  13, 
1838. 

Carpenter,  Matthew  Hale  (1824-1881),  Senator,  settled  in  Wis- 
consin in  1848,  and  soon  acquired  an  extensive  law  practice.  He  suc- 
cessfully argued  the  reconstruction  act  of  1867  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court.  He  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1869  to  1875  and  from  1879  till  his 
death. 

Carpenters'  Hall,  Phila.,  was  the  hall  of  the  company  or  organi- 
zation of  the  carpenters  of  the  city,  analogous  to  the  guild  halls  of 
London.  When  the  first  Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia  in 
September,  1774,  the  State  House  was  offered  them,  but  the  offer  of  the 
carpenters  was  accepted  by  the  members,  to  show  their  respect  for 
the  mechanics.  The  second  Continental  Congress  also  began  its  sessions 
there. 

Carpet  Baggers,  a  name  first  given  to  Northern  politicians  who 
sought  temporary  homes  in  the  Southern  States  to  obtain  qualifications 
for  admission  to  Congress  from  these  States.     After  1865  the  name  was 


126  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

given  to  Northern  Republicans  who  settled  in  the  South  and  later  to  all 
whites  who  endeavored  to  control  the  colored  vote. 

Carpet-bag  Governments.  During  the  period  between  1865  and 
1870  the  government  of  a  majority  of  the  Southern  States  was  con- 
trolled by  unscrupulous  adventurers,  who  excluded  the  better  class  of 
whites  from  voting  and  controlled  elections  by  negro  majorities. 
Fraudulent  taxes  were  levied  and  enormous  State  debts  were  rolled  up. 
These  governments  were  known  as  ' '  Carpet-bag  Governments. ' ' 

Carriek's  Ford,  W.  Va.,  a  running  fight  between  the  rear  ranks 
of  Garnet's  retreating  Confederate  forces  and  McClellan's  vanguard 
under  Steedman.  Garnet  was  slain  and  a  number  of  captures  were  made 
July  13,  1861. 

Carroll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton  (1737-1832),  last  surviving 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  educated  by  Jesuits  in 
France.  He  returned  to  Maryland  in  1765.  In  1775  he  was  one  of  the 
council  of  safety.  July  4,  1776,  he  was  appointed  deputy  to  Congress, 
and  on  August  2  signed  the  Declaration. 

Carroll,  John  (1735-1817),  cousin  of  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton, 
was  educated  as  a  priest  at  St.  Omer's.  In  1774  he  returned  to  Mary- 
land and  enthusiastically  espoused  the  patriot  cause.  At  the  suggestion 
of  Dr.  Franklin  he  was  appointed  superior  of  the  clergy  of  the  United 
States  in  1784.  He  became  bishop  in  1790.  By  unanimous  request  of 
Congress  he  pronounced  a  panegyric  on  Washington,  February  22,  1800. 
He  was  consecrated  archbishop  in  1808,  and  was  the  first  Catholic 
bishop  and  archbishop  in  the  United  States. 

Carson,  Christopher  (Kit)  (1809-1868),  explorer,  was  for  eight 
years  a  trapper  on  the  plains.  He  afterward  accompanied  Fremont  on 
two  of  his  expeditions,  to  the  success  of  which  he  greatly  contributed. 

Carthage,  Mo.,  a  brief  but  severe  engagement,  July  5,  1861,  be- 
tween 12,000  Union  troops,  under  General  Franz  Sigel,  and  5,000  Con- 
federates chiefly  volunteers  from  Missouri,  Texas  and  Arkansas,  led  by 
Generals  Price,  McCulloch  and  Pillow.  General  Sigel  was  compelled 
to  retreat,  although  victorious. 

Carthagena,  in  Spanish  America,  attacked  in  1741  by  a  powerful 
fleet  and  a  strong  body  of  soldiers,  both  English  and  colonial,  under 
Admiral  Vernon.  When  England  was  preparing  to  send  a  force  against 
the  Spanish  West  Indies,  the  colonies  north  of  Carolina  were  summoned 
to  contribute  four  battalions  to  the  armament.  The  requisition  was 
generously  complied  with.     But  the  expedition  against  Carthagena  was 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  127 

anything  but  successful,  though  it  was  composed  of  twenty-nine  ships 
and  12,000  laud  troops.  The  sailors  and  soldiers  quickly  fell  ill  with 
the  fever.  Only  the  outer  fortifications  were  demolished  ;  then  the 
English  were  obliged  to  retire. 

Carver,  John  (i590?-i62i),  first  Governor  of  Plymouth  colony. 
He  was  probably  elected  Governor  on  board  the  "Mayflower"  in 
Provincetown  harbor  in  November,  1620  ;  was  re-elected  March,  1621, 
but  died  the  next  month. 

Cary  Rebellion.  In  1705  Thomas  Cary,  then  Deputy  Governor  of 
North  Carolina,  was  deposed  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Quakers  for 
disfranchising  them  through  the  requirements  of  the  Test  Act.  He 
endeavored  to  usurp  the  government  during  several  years.  Finally,  in 
1711,  he  endeavored  to  capture  Governor  Hyde  by  force.  Governor 
Spotswood,  of  Virginia,  sent  a  troop  to  Hyde's  assistance.  Cary  was 
forced  into  submission. 

Cary,  Samuel  F,,  born  in  1814,  Congressman,  of  Ohio,  served  in 
Congress  one  term,  1867-1869,  and  was  the  only  Republican  member  of 
the  House  who  voted  against  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson. 

Cass,  Lewis  (1782-1866),  was  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H.  His  early  life 
was  passed  as  a  lawyer  and  politician  in  Ohio,  broken  by  service  in  the 
War  of  1812,  during  which  he  became  brigadier-general,  and  fought  at 
the  battle  of  the  Thames.  In  the  years  18 13-31  he  was  Governor  of 
Michigan  Territory  ;  during  this  period  his  management  of  Indian  rela- 
tions was  highly  regarded,  and  an  expedition  in  1820  into  the  heart  of 
the  Indian  country  yielded  important  results.  General  Cass  published 
in  1823  "Inquiries  Concerning  the  Indians."  His  reputation  was 
increased  as  Secretary  of  War  1831-36,  U.  S.  Minister  to  France  1836- 
42,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Michigan  1845-48  and  1849-57,  and  Secretary  of 
State  1857-60.  He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Democratic 
nomination  for  the  Presidency  in  1844  and  1852.  In  1848  he  gained  the 
nomination,  but  was  defeated  in  a  close  contest  by  General  Taylor. 

Castro,  Manuel  (1801-1891),  of  California,  as  Mexican  prefect  of 
Monterey  opposed  by  military  force  the  entrance  of  the  Americans 
under  Fremont  into  California. 

Catholic  Church  in  America.  Most  of  the  early  explorers  of  this 
country  were  fervent  Catholics,  and  very  soon  Catholic  colonial  empires 
had  been  formed  in  Mexico  and  Central  and  South  America.  In  1528 
the  first  Catholic  missionaries  landed  in  the  United  States,  at  Florida, 
and  in  1565  the  first  settlement  was  made  at  St.  Augustine.     From  this 


128  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

were  sent  out  missionaries  to  the  neighboring  tribes  and  colonies,  till 
Florida  was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1763,  which  proved  a  fatal  check 
to  missionary  efforts.  Other  missions  were  established  along  the  Great 
Lakes,  the  Mississippi,  in  the  Far  West  and  in  the  English  colonies, 
with  more  or  less  success,  but  the  real  history  of  the  Church  in  the 
United  States  begins  with  the  Catholic  colony  of  Lord  Baltimore  in 
Maryland.  The  Church,  however,  prospered  little,  and  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  there  were  only  about  twenty-five  thousand  members, 
of  whom  two-thirds  were  in  Maryland.  After  the  war,  immigration 
from  Catholic  countries  and  natural  development  had  increased  the 
number  in  the  States  to  150,000  by  the  year  1807.  From  that  time  on, 
its  growth  has  been  very  rapid.  The  work  of  the  religious  orders,  in- 
cluding the  Jesuits,  the  development  of  educational  facilities,  and  the 
large  influx  of  Catholics  from  immigration  have  all  so  built  up  the 
Church  that  it  now  practically  claims  about  one-sixth  of  the  entire  pop- 
ulation of  the  United  States,  and  a  large  majority  of  the  population  of 
the  countries  to  the  south.  The  first  Catholic  bishop  was  consecrated 
in  1790. 

Catlitt,  George  (1796-1872),  painter  and  traveler.  He  spent  eight 
years  in  travel  among  the  Indians,  of  whom  he  painted  470  full-length 
portaits.     He  also  traveled  in  South  America. 

Caucus.  The  caucus  originated  in  Boston  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  having 
been  a  meeting  of  the  caulkers  connected  with  the  shipping  business  in 
the  North  End.  From  these  private  and  local  meetings  the  term  was 
extended,  after  the  installation  of  the  Federal  Government,  to  the  Con- 
gressional meetings  which  nominated  candidates  for  the  Presidency  of 
the  United  States.  Members  of  Congress  early  began  to  hold  caucuses  to 
nominate  candidates,  between  whom  it  was  an  understood  thing  that 
the  constitutional  electors  should  choose,  despite  the  provision  of  the 
Constitution  that  "  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an 
elector."  There  were  seven  Congressional  caucuses  held  between  1800 
and  1824.  In  1800  the  Federalist  leaders,  disliking  Adams,  met  in 
caucus  and  nominated  the  latter  and  Pinckney,  hoping  the  latter  might 
be  elected.  The  Republicans  nominated  Jefferson  and  Burr  in  the  same 
way.  In  1804  the  first  open  Republican  caucus  nominated  Jefferson 
and  Clinton.  There  was  no  Federalist  caucus  that  year.  In  1808, 
Jefferson  having  refused  a  third  nomination,  the  Republican  caucus 
nominated  Madison  and  Clinton.  No  Federalist  caucus  was  held  that 
year.     In  1812  the  Republican  became  a  war  party,  and  the  congres* 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  129 

sional  caucus  renominated  Madison  unanimously  with  John  Langdon 
for  Vice-President.  The  Federalists  in  a  secret  caucus  agreed  to  support 
Clinton  and  Ingersoll.  Monroe  was  nominated  by  the  Republicans  in 
caucus  in  1816,  the  Federalists  making  no  nominations,  but  their  elect- 
ors voting  for  Rufus  King.  The  caucus  of  1820,  called  by  Samuel 
Smith  of  Maryland,  separated  without  action.  The  last  caucus  for 
nominating  a  President  was  held  by  the  Republicans  in  1824  and  Craw- 
ford was  nominated,  with  Gallatin  as  Vice-President.  In  1828  nomina- 
tions were  made  by  the  State  Legislatures,  and  in  1831  the  existing 
nominating  system  began  to  be  introduced.  Similarly,  State  nomina- 
tions were  made  in  legislative  caucuses,  until,  somewhat  earlier  than  in 
the  Federal  party-system,  nominating  conventions  took  their  place. 

Cayuga  Indians,  one  of  the  Six  Nations,  originally  inhabited  a 
district  on  Cayuga  Lake.  Though  visited  by  French  missionaries,  they 
allied  themselves  with  the  English.  During  the  Revolution  the  Cay- 
ugas  joined  the  British,  being  already  in  arms  against  the  colonists  at 
Point  Pleasant.  They  anno3'ed  General  Clinton  on  his  march  to  join 
Sullivan  in  1779.  Their  villages  were  then  destroyed.  After  the  war 
they  ceded  nearly  all  their  lands  to  the  State  of  New  York.  They 
later  became  scattered  and  almost  totally  disappeared. 

Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  the  final  battle  of  Sheridan's  campaign  against 
the  Confederate  Early  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  occurring  October  19, 
1864.  Each  general  led  about  30,000  men.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  fight  Sheridan  himself  was  absent,  the  battle  of  Winchester,  or 
Opequan,  being  still  in  progress.  Wright  therefore  commanded  the 
Federals.  His  forces,  under  the  immediate  command  of  Emory  and 
Crook,  were  drawn  up  along  Cedar  Creek  and  were  there  attacked  at 
daybreak  by  the  Confederates,  who  fell  upon  the  Eighth  Corps  and 
routed  it  utterly.  Wright  immediately  reformed  his  line,  making  a 
change  of  front  and  a  retrograde  movement,  but  losing  heavily  during 
the  formation.  At  this  point  Sheridan  came  up,  assumed  command 
and  fell  upon  the  Confederates,  putting  them  to  flight  with  great 
slaughter.  This  was  the  last  attempt  of  the  Confederates  toward  the 
North  by  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

Cedar  Mountain,  Va.,  Aug.  9,  1862.  General  Pope,  commanding 
the  Union  troops,  having  come  into  contact  with  a  portion  of  Jackson's 
army,  Banks  was  detailed  with  a  force  of  12,000  to  engage  him,  although 
Jackson's  army  numbered  more  than  20,000  men.  Banks  charged  Jack- 
son's rear  as  he  retreated  toward  Culpeper.  The  Confederates  were 
for  a  time  in  great  confusion,  but  Jackson  succeeded  in  rallying  them 
and  in  repelling  Banks*  assault.  Banks  fell  back  to  a  strong  position. 
Vol.  V.— 9 


i3o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

and  Jackson,  unwilling  to  attack  him,  retreated  to  Gordonsville.     The 
Union  loss  was  2,381,  that  of  the  Confederates  1,314. 

Censors.  The  Constitution  of  Pennsylvania,  framed  in  1776,  provided 
that  every  seven  years  the  people  should  choose  a  Council  of  Censors, 
two  for  each  city  or  county,  who  should  investigate  the  doings  of  de- 
partments of  government,  inquire  whether  the  Constitution  had  been 
violated,  etc.  This  institution  was  not  continued  by  the  Constitution 
of  1790.  The  Vermont  Constitution  of  1777,  modeled  on  that  of  Penn- 
sylvania, made  similar  provision  for  a  Council  of  Censors,  to  convene 
every  seven  years,  and  this  provision,  continued  by  the  Constitutions 
of  1786  and  1793,  was  not  abrogated  until  1870. 

Censure,  Resolutions  of.  In  case  of  a  violation  of  law  by  the 
President,  the  constitutional  process  of  punishment  is  impeachment  by 
the  House,  conviction  by  the  Senate  and  removal  from  office.  On 
March  28,  1834,  after  a  three  months'  debate,  Congress  resolved  "that 
the  President  (Andrew  Jackson),  in  the  late  executive  proceedings  in 
relation  to  the  public  revenue,  has  assumed  upon  himself  authority  and 
power  not  conferred  by  the  Constitution  and  laws,  but  in  derogation  of 
both."  Jackson  protested  against  this  as  accusing  him  of  perjury. 
The  resolution  was  expunged  in  1837,  after  a  long  struggle  on  the  part 
of  Jackson's  friends. 

Census.  Occasional  censuses  were  taken  in  individual  colonics.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  requiring  that  the  representation  of  each  State  in 
Congress  should  be  in  proportion  to  its  population,  it  became  necessary 
also  to  provide  for  enumerations.  The  Constitution  provided  that  they 
should  be  made  decennially.  The  first  was  made  in  1790  (the  first  of 
Great  Britain  was  taken  in  1801),  and  consisted  simply  of  an  enumera- 
tion of  the  population,  taken  by  the  U.  S.  marshals.  Since  then  the 
censuses  have  been  made  increasingly  elaborate.  The  office  of  Super* 
intendent  of  the  Census,  in  the  Interior  Department,  once  decennial,  is 
now  virtually,  perpetual,  since  it  takes  ten  years  to  publish  the  results 
of  a  census. 

Cent,  a  copper  coin  stamped  with  various  designs  and  issued  first  by 
the  States,  later  by  the  Federal  Government.  Vermont  was  the  first 
State  to  issue  copper  cents,  having  permitted,  June,  1785,  Reuben  Har- 
mon, Jr.,  to  make  money  for  the  State  for  two  years.  He  started  a 
mint  at  Rupert,  Bennington  County,  coining  the  Vermont  cent  of  1785. 
Obverse,  wooded  mountains  and  rising  sun  with  a  plow,  Vermontis. 
Res.  Publica.  Exergue  1785.  Reverse,  a  ring  surrounded  by  thirteen 
stars  with   rays   springing   from   the   circle  ;    legend,    Stella.    Quarta, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  131 

Decima.  Connecticut,  in  October,  1785,  granted  to  Bishop,  Hopkins, 
Hillhouse  and  Goodrich  the  right  to  coin  ^10,000  of  copper  cents, 
known  as  the  Connecticut  cent  of  1785.  Obverse,  a  mailed  bust,  head 
laureated ;  legend,  Auctori.  Connec.  Reverse,  Goddess  of  Liberty 
grasping  olive  branch  in  right  hand  and  liberty  staff  in  left,  which  is 
surmounted  by  a  liberty  cap  ;  legend,  Iude.  Et  Lib.  Exergue  1785. 
Massachusetts  established  a  mint  in  1786,  and  coined  $60,000  in  cents 
and  half  cents.  Obverse  of  cent  :  a  clothed  Indian,  in  his  right  hand 
a  bow,  iu  his  left  an  arrow  ;  legend,  Common  *  Wealth.  Reverse,  a 
spread  eagle,  a  shield  on  his  breast  bearing  the  word  cent,  his  talons 
grasping  an  olive  branch  and  a  bundle  of  arrows  ;  legend,  Massachu- 
setts, Exergue  1787,  beneath  a  horizontal  bar.  New  Jersey  granted  to 
Goadsby  and  Cox,  in  1786,  the  right  to  coin  ^'10,000  at  fifteen  coppers 
to  the  shilling,  known  as  New  Jersey  copper  coin  of  1786.  Obverse, 
horse's  head,  heraldic  wreath  and  plow  ;  legend,  Nova.  Csesarea. 
Exergue  1786.  Reverse,  a  shield  ;  legend,  E  Pluribus  Unum.  In  1781 
the  Continental  Congress  directed  Robert  Morris  to  look  into  the  mat- 
ter of  Governmental  Coinage.  Morris  proposed  a  money  unk  equal  to 
one-fourth  of  a  grain  of  fine  silver,  an  equivalent  of  one-fourteen-hun- 
dred-and-fortieth  of  a  Spanish  dollar.  The  coin  equal  to  one  hundred  of 
these  units  was  to  be  called  a  cent  [Latin  centum,  one  hundred],  500 
units  a  quint,  10,000  units  a  mark.  These  were  not  accepted,  but  in 
1784  Jefferson  proposed  in  his  coinage  report  to  Congress  that  the 
"  smallest  coin  be  of  copper,  of  which  two  hundred  shall  pass  for  one 
dollar."  In  1786  the  hundredth  was  substituted.  Copper  cents  began 
to  be  coined  in  1793.  In  1796  their  weight  was  reduced.  In  1857  the 
small  nickel  cent  was  substituted,  in  1864  the  small  bronze. 

Centennial  Exhibition,  an  international  exhibition  of  arts,  man- 
ufactures and  products  of  the  soil  and  mines  held  at  Fairmount  Park, 
Philadelphia,  during  the  summer  of  1876.  It  was  the  first  interna- 
tional exhibition  held  in  this  country,  and  was  also  an  anniversary  ex- 
hibition of  the  world's  progress  in  the  hundredth  year  of  the  existence 
of  the  United  States.  The  exhibition  was  proposed  by  the  citizens  of 
Philadelphia  in  1870.  In  1872  Congress  permitted  the  appointment  of 
a  Board  of  Finance.  This  board  raised  a  capital  stock  of  $10,000,000 
from  among  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia.  Congress  afterward  appro- 
priated $2,000,000  as  a  loan,  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  $1,000,000,  and 
Philadelphia  $1,500,000.  Many  European  and  other  foreign  countries 
sent  exhibits,  which  were  admitted  free  of  duty  under  bond.  The  ex- 
hibition was  open  from  May  10  to  November  10.  The  paid  admissions 
numbered  8,000,000. 


132  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Cerro  Gordo,  a  mountain  pass  commanding  General  Taylor's  line 
of  march  from  Vera  Cruz  toward  the  City  of  Mexico.  It  was  occupied 
and  fortified  by  the  Mexican  leader,  Santa  Anna,  and  a  battle  took 
place  there  April  17-18,  1847.  Taylor  first  succeeded  in  occupying  the 
Ataloga  heights,  which  overlooked  Santa  Anna's  position  and  which  he 
had,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  generals,  left  unguarded  as  impossible 
of  access  to  the  Americans.  This  step  of  Taylor's  practically  won  the 
day.  Actual  fighting  began  early  April  18.  The  guns  on  the  Ataloga 
heights  opened  fire  upon  Santa  Anna's  fortifications  on  Cerro  Gordo, 
while  General  Twiggs  and  Colonel  Baker  attacked  the  Mexican's  un- 
protected rear.  This  resulted  in  defeat  for  the  Mexicans.  Santa  Anna 
fled.     Number  engaged :  Americans,  8,500;   Mexicans,  12,000. 

Chaffee,  Gen.  A.  R.,  see  appendix,  page  477. 

China,  Insurrection  of  Boxers,  see  appendix,  page  477. 

Chalmette's  (near  New  Orleans),  one  of  the  fights  preceding  the 
battle  of  New  Orleans.  General  Jackson,  here  entrenched,  was  attacked 
December  28,  1814,  by  the  British  under  General  Pakenham.  After 
severe  fighting  the  British  were  driven  back  with  the  loss  of  150  men. 

Chamber sburg,  Pa.,  burned  by  M'Causland  and  Johnson  ot 
Early's  Confederate  army  July  30,  1864.  These  generals  were  at  the 
time  engaged  in  raiding  toward  the  Susquehanna  with  a  cavalry  troop 
of  3,000  men.  They  demanded  of  the  citizens  of  Chambersburg,  largely 
Union  sympathizers,  $200,000  in  gold,  or  $500,000  in  greenbacks.  This 
being  refused,  the  town  was  fired.  This  is  said  to  have  been  done  in 
retaliation  for  Hunter's  burning  of  Governor  Letcher's  house  at 
Lexington,  Va. 

Champion  Hills,  Miss.  At  this  place  during  Grant's  pursuit  in 
1863  of  Pemberton  toward  Vicksburg,  Pemberton  having  25,000  Confed- 
erates, there  occurred,  on  May  12,  a  severe  battle  in  which  the  Confed- 
erates  were  beaten.  The  Confederates  held  a  position  along  a  narrow 
ridge,  their  left  resting  on  a  height  overlooking  the  Vicksburg  road. 
Hovey's  division  of  Grant's  army  was  engaged  in  building  a  bridge  at 
this  point,  and  that  leader  began  the  battle.  He  was  quickly  reinforced 
by  McClernand  and  McPherson.  Logan's  brigade  had  meantime 
reached  the  Confederate  flank  by  a  detour,  so  they  were  compelled  to 
retreat  hurriedly  to  escape  being  captured.  As  it  was,  many  of  their 
batteries  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federals. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de  (1567-1635),  French  navigator.  In  1599 
he  sailed  in  the  "  St.  Julien  "  for  the  West  Indies,  and  returned  by  way 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  across  which  he  conceived  the  plan  of  a 
ship-canal.  In  1603-04  he  in  two  voyages  explored  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  In  1604-06  he  explored  and  mapped  the  coast  as  far  as  Cape  Cod. 
On  his  next  voyage  he  founded  Quebec  in  1608.     In  1609  he  joined  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  133 

Montagnais  against  the  Iroquois.     They  ascended  the  Sorel  River  and 
entered  the  lake  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name. 

Chancellors ville,  Va.,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring 
May  2-3,  1863,  during  Hooker's  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
The  Federals  numbered  130,000  troops  ;  the  Confederates  under  Lee, 
who  lay  011  the  west  side  of  the  Rappahannock  River,  were  about  62,000 
strong.  Lee  had,  during  the  winter,  constructed  an  impregnable  line 
from  Bank's  Ford  to  Port  Royal.  Hooker  dispatched  Sedgwick  across 
the  river  to  menace  Fredericksburg,  and  Stoneman's  cavalry  to  attack 
Lee's  rear,  while  he,  with  the  main  column,  intended  crossing  lower 
down  the  stream  and  assaulting  the  Confederate  flank.  Before  Lee  was 
aware  he  had  moved,  he  was  established  at  Chancellorsville  with  46,000 
troops.  Lee  at  once  decided  to  begin  the  attack.  May  1,  several  short 
attacks  were  made  upon  the  Federals  to  ascertain  their  position  and 
strength.  May  2,  Jackson,  with  26,000  Confederates,  making  a  long 
detour,  swept  down  upon  Hooker's  left  under  Howard,  and  completely 
demolished  it.  The  counter  charge  of  Keenau's  Pennsylvania  troops 
alone  saved  the  left  from  utter  destruction.  Late  in  the  afternoon  Stone- 
wall Jackson  was  fired  upon  by  mistake  by  his  own  men  and  mortally 
wounded.  May  3,  the  fight  was  renewed  with  terrible  vigor.  Lee  and 
J.  B.  B.  Stuart  combined  forces  and  attacked  Hooker's  center.  Hooker 
himself  was  wounded,  and  the  National  line  became  completely  demor- 
alized. The  Federals  were  rapidly  forced  back  to  some  strong  intrench- 
ments  that  had  been  constructed  the  previous  night.  Just  then  Lee 
heard  that  Sedgwick  had  captured  Fredericksburg  Heights,  and  was  ad- 
vancing upon  his  rear.  His  attention  was  turned  to  defeating  Sedg- 
wick.    Hooker  retreated,  beaten  and  in  confusion. 

Chandler,  William  1$.,  born  in  1835,  of  New  Hampshire,  politician 
and  Senator,  was  several  times  member  of  the  Legislature  of  his  State 
and  twice  Speaker  of  its  House  of  Representatives.  From  the  time  of 
his  coming  of  age  he  has  been  an  active  Republican  politician  and  sec- 
retary of  its  national  committee  from  1868  to  1876,  was  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  from  1882  to  1885  and  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1889 :  his 
present  term  will  expire  1901. 

Chandler,  £aehariah  (1813-1879),  of  Michigan,  Senator,  removed 
from  New  Hampshire  to  Detroit  in  1833  and  engaged  in  the  dry-goods 
business,  in  which  he  was  successful.  He  became  a  prominent  Whig 
and  a  director  of  the  "  underground  railroad."  Was  elected  to  the  U.  S. 
Senate  to  succeed  General  Cass  in  1857,  and  remained  in  that  post  till 
1874,  when  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Interior  by  Grant.  He 
was  again  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1879. 


i34  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Channing,  William  Ullery  (1780- 1842), of  Massachusetts, preacher 
and  writer.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1 798,  for  the  next  two 
years  was  a  private  instructor  in  Richmond,  studied  theology  at  Cam- 
bridge  and  was  settled  over  the  Federal  Street  Church  in  Boston  in  1803, 
where  he  became  the  leader  of  the  Unitarian  movement,  then  stirring 
New  England,  and  active  in  all  the  philanthropic  enterprises  of  his  time. 

Chantilly,  Va.,  a  fierce  fight  during  a  violent  thunderstorm,  Sep- 
tember 1,  1862,  between  Jackson's  division  of  L,ee's  army  and  portions 
of  Hooker's,  Reno's,  McDowell's  and  Kearny's  divisions  of  Pope's  army. 
Pope  had  retreated  from  Manassas  to  Fairfax  Court  House  and  Jackson 
was  dispatched  by  L,ee  to  cut  off  his  communications  with  Washington. 
Jackson  fell  heavily  upon  Pope's  flank,  which  resisted  him  stoutly  and 
finally  repulsed  his  attack.  Many  lives  were  lost  on  both  sides,  how- 
ever, and  among  the  dead  was  General  Kearny,  an  old  and  experienced 
Union  commander. 

Chapin  Farm,  Va.,  a  brief  engagement,  September  28,  1864,  be- 
tween small  detachments  of  Federals  and  Confederates.  The  former 
were  beaten.  This  occurred  during  the  campaign  in  the  vicinities  of 
Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Chapultepec,  Mexico,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Mexican  War,  Sep- 
tember 12-14,  I847,  Scott  commanding  the  Americans,  Santa  Anna  the 
Mexicans.  Pillow  and  Quitman  were  ordered  to  attack  the  castle,  sup- 
ported by  Worth,  Twiggs  checking  reinforcements  from  the  city. 
An  entrance  into  the  castle  groves  and  the  castle  itself  was  quickly 
effected  and  the  fighting  raged  along  the  streets  of  the  city.  The  castle 
flag  was  shot  away  and  General  Bravo,  four  other  generals,  100  officers 
and  800  men  surrendered.  Worth  had  meanwhile  established  his  head- 
quarters within  the  city  gates.  September  14,  Worth  captured  the 
citadel  and  hoisted  over  the  palace  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  Santa  Anna 
sent  to  Scott  demanding  guarantees  of  life  and  property.  Scott  refused 
to  be  bound  by  terms  other  than  those  imposed  by  honor  and  usage. 
Scott  was  obliged  to  sweep  the  streets  with  canister  and  grape  because 
of  attacks  from  the  houses.  Numbers  engaged  :  Americans,  7, 200  ;  Mex- 
icans, 25,000. 

Christian  Science,  see  appendix,  page  479. 

Charles  I.  (1600-1649),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1625  to  1649, 
in  1628  granted  a  charter  to  the  governor  and  company  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  Colony.  His  arbitrary  rule  and  his  persecutions  of  religious  sects 
through  Archbishop  Laud  caused  a  great  emigration  to  New  England. 
He  was  always  hostile  to  the  government  set  up  there.  In  1629  he  gave 
the  "  Province  pf  Carolina  "  to  Sir  Robert  Heath?  his  attorney-general, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  135 

In  1632  he  gave  to  Cecilius  Calvert,  second  Lord  Baltimore,  a  proprie- 
tary grant  of  Maryland. 

Charles  II.  (1630-1685),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1660  to  1685, 
was  displeased  with  the  independent  spirit  of  New  England,  and  in  1664 
sent  four  royal  commissioners,  Nicolls,  Carr,  Cartwright  and  Maverick, 
who  should  correct  abuses  in  those  colonies.  He  was  especially  dis- 
pleased with  the  treatment  of  the  Quakers  by  Massachusetts.  He 
granted  liberal  charters  to  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  1662-63.  In 
1664  he  claimed  and  took  possession  of  New  Netherland.  In  1670  he 
chartered  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  In  1673  ne  reaffirmed  Carteret's 
New  Jersey  charter.  In  1681  he  granted  Pennsylvania  to  William  Penn, 
giving  him  a  proprietary  grant  of  40,000  square  miles.  In  1684  he  re- 
voked the  charter  of  Massachusetts. 

Charles,  Cape,  Va.,  so  named  in  April,  1607,  by  Admiral  Newport, 
in  honor  of  the  baby  Charles,  son  of  James  I.,  who  was  afterward 
Charles  I.  of  England. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  was  founded  1670  (in  its  present  situation  1672), 
by  English  colonists  under  William  Sayle.  The  city  joined  with  the 
colonists  against  Great  Britain  at  an  early  period.  It  was  thrice  attacked 
during  the  Revolution,  first  by  Sir  Peter  Parker  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
in  1776,  again  by  General  Prevost  in  1779.  *n  May,  1779,  Prevost  sum- 
moned Charleston  to  surrender,  but  was  forced  to  retire  by  the  sudden 
appearance  of  American  reinforcements.  Again,  early  in  1780,  Clinton 
advanced  upon  Charleston  with  16,000  men.  Lincoln  undertook  the 
defense  with  only  7,000  men.  The  British  army  encompassed  the  city, 
and  the  fleet  ran  past  the  forts.  Lincoln  was  surrounded  and  forced  to 
surrender  his  stores  and  army.  Thus  a  whole  army  was  lost  to  the 
Americans.  After  the  capture  of  "Fort  Washington  this  was  the  greatest 
disaster  that  befell  their  cause  during  the  war.  For  events  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  Civil  War,  see  Secession  and  Sumter,  Fort,  also  Charleston 
Harbor.  The  city  was  occupied  February  t8,  1865,  by  Sherman's  Fed- 
eral troops,  about  75,000  strong,  Hardee  having  evacuated  it  with  his 
35,000  Confederates.  This  occupation  of  Charleston  took  place  without 
bloodshed,  but  Hardee,  before  leaving  the  city,  set  fire  to  nearly  all  the 
warehouses  and  cotton  wharves,  for  he  was  determined  not  to  leave 
anything  for  the  Federals.  An  accidental  explosion  of  powder  destroyed 
about  200  persons.  The  National  flag  was  once  more  raised  on  Fort 
Sumter  by  the  officer  commanding  the  Federal  garrison  at  Fort  Morris. 
The  Federals  captured  450  gu  as,  which  Hardee  had  left.  Charleston 
was  visited  by  an  earthquake  August  31,  1886.  which  destroye4  a  large 
part  of  t&fc  city  and  many  lives, 


136  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Charleston,  W.  Va.,  became  the  capital  of  that  State  in  1872. 

Charleston,  College  of  (S.  C).  In  October,  1775,  the  General 
Assembly  passed  an  act  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  at  Charleston. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  Revolution  its  first  class  was  not  graduated  till 
1794.  In  1886  the  college  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but 
was  very  soon  rebuilt.     Its  law  school  was  opened  in  1864. 

Charleston  Harbor,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  occurring  April  7, 
1863,  in  which  monitors  were  first  tried,  and  without  success,  against 
land  fortifications.  The  Federal  Admiral  Dupont  proposed  to  capture 
Charleston  from  the  Confederates  by  destroying  Fort  Sumter  with  iron- 
clads and  rams.  He  entered  the  harbor  with  seven  Ericsson  monitors, 
the  frigate  "Ironsides"  and  the  "Keokuk,"  both  partially  iron-clad. 
The  monitor  ' '  Weehawken  ' '  led  the  way.  An  advance  was  immediately 
made  upon  Fort  Sumter,  Forts  Morris  and  Moultrie  being  disregarded. 
The  Confederates  opened  fire  upon  the  fleet  from  all  three  forts,  includ- 
ing 300  guns.  The  fleet  was  quickly  disabled  and  thrown  into  the  ut- 
most confusion.  The  ' '  Ironsides  ' '  became  entangled  with  the  monitors, 
the  "Keokuk  "  was  struck  ninety-nine  times,  the  "  Passaic  "  twenty- 
seven  times.  Dupont  was  compelled  to  leave  the  harbor  after  a  few 
hours'  firing,  acknowledging  the  impossibility  of  taking  the  city  with 
his  fleet. 

Charlestown,  Mass.,  was  founded  in  1629.  During  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  Charlestown  was  completely  destroyed  by  shells  and  fire 
(June  17,  1775).     Charlestown  was  incorporated  with  Boston  in  1874. 

Charlestown,  W.  Va.  John  Brown  was  tried  and  executed  here 
on  December  2,  1859. 

Charter  Oak,  a  tree  near  Hartford,  Conn. ,  in  the  hollow  of  which 
Captain  Wadsworth  hid  the  charter  of  the  colony  to  prevent  its  being 
taken  by  Sir  Kdmund  Andros  in  1687.  The  tree  was  prostrated  by  a 
gale  August  20,  1856.     The  story  has  been  doubted. 

Charters.  The  kings  of  England  made  grants  by  letters  patent  to 
individuals,  giving  them  land  and  jurisdiction  in  America.  The  name 
charter  is  commonly  restricted  to  the  grants  made  to  companies  or  large 
bodies  of  men.  Of  these  the  chief  were  those  of  the  Virginia  Company 
in  1606,  1609  and  1612,  of  the  Council  for  New  England  (1620),  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company  (1629),  of  Providence  Plantations  (1644), 
of  Connecticut  (1662),  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations 
(1663),  of  Massachusetts  (1691),  and  of  Georgia  (1732).  Of  a  similar 
sort  were  the  charters  which  were  given  to  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany by  the  States  General  of  the  United  Netherlands  in  1621,  and  tQ 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  137 

the  Swedish  Company  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1624.  The  attempt  has 
been  made  to  derive  the  constitutions  or  forms  of  government  of  our 
colonies  from  the  forms  of  internal  government  prescribed,  in  these 
charters,  for  the  colonizing  companies.  But  it  is  much  more  probable 
that  the  colonial  institutions  are  modeled  on  the  governmental  institu- 
tions of  England  itself.  The  theory  that  a  charter  constituted  a  contract 
between  the  granting  government  and  the  grantee  was  apparently  first 
advanced  by  Jeremiah  Dummer,  in  his  "  Defense  of  the  Charters." 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland  (1808-1873),  Chief  Justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  was  born  at  Cornish,  N.  H.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1826,  and  became  a  school  teacher  and  finally  a  lawyer  in 
Cincinnati.  From  an  early  period  he  was  profoundly  interested  in  the 
anti-slavery  movement,  and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Liberty  party 
and  of  the  later  Free-Soil  party.  In  1849  he  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  Ohio,  having  been  elected  by  a  coalition  of  Democrats  and  Free- 
Soilers.  He  distinguished  himself  as  an  opponent  of  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill  and  in  1856-60  was  Republican  Governor  of  Ohio.  When 
the  Republican  convention  of  i860  met,  Mr.  Chase  was  a  leading  can- 
didate, and  was  naturally  a  member  of  President  Lincoln's  Cabinet. 
His  services  in  1861-64  in  supervising  the  finances  of  the  nation  during 
a  critical  and  difficult  period  have  been  rated  at  a  very  high  value. 
Shortly  after  leaving  the  Treasury  Department  he  was  appointed  in 
1864  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  held  that  office  till  his 
death.  His  name  had  been  mentioned  for  the  Presidency  in  1864,  and 
in  1868  it  was  before  the  Democratic  National  Convention  ;  but  liis  po- 
sition respecting  negro  suffrage  led  to  the  rejection  of  his  candidacy. 

Chateaugay  (N.  Y0),  action  of  October  25,  1813.  On  the  banks  of 
this  stream  guarding  0  ford  was  Lieutenant-Colonel  Salaberry  with 
1,000  British.  General  Hampton  with  4,000  men  attacked  in  two  divi- 
sions. A  series  of  blunders,  disgraceful  to  the  American  arms,  resulted 
in  the  inglorious  retreat  of  the  Americans.  Their  loss  was  thirty -eight 
men,  the  British  twenty-five. 

Chatham,  Earl  of  (William  Pitt),  (November,  15,  1708— May  11, 
1788),  the  great  English  statesman,  was  a  cornet  of  horse  in  the  army 
before  he  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1735.  He  had  been  pay- 
master of  the  forces,  but  his  great  period  is  from  1756  to  1761,  when  he 
was  Secretary  of  State  and  practically  Prime  Minister  in  the  administra- 
tions of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle.  During 
this  epoch  he  was  the  life  and  soul  of  the  great  struggle  against  France. 
He  supported  Frederick  the  Great  on  the  Continent,  and  retrieved  the 
British  reverses  in  America,     He  was  the  idol  of  the  nation,  the  "  Great 


138  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Commoner,"  and  on  the  English  side  the  central  figure  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  He  resigned  in  1761,  sided  with  the  Americans  in  the 
Revolutionary  struggle,  and  held  office  as  Privy  Seal  in  the  Grafton 
ministry,  1766-68,  having  been  created  Earl  of  Chatham.  He  continued 
to  champion  the  cause  of  the  Americans,  and  of  his  speeches  in  their 
behalf  that  of  1777  is  especially  clebrated. 

Chatham,  Canada,  War  of  1812.  General  Procter  and  Tecumtha, 
when  pursued  by  General  Harrison,  here  made  a  stand  October  4,  1813, 
but  were  again  driven  in  flight  with  the  loss  of  several  men  and  military 
supplies. 

Chatham,  Island.  This  island  possesses  an  interest  to  Americans 
because  of  negotiations  opened  in  March,  1900,  with  the  Ecuador 
Government  looking  to  its  purchase  by  the  United  States  for  a  Pacific 
coaling  station.  It  is  the  most  important  island  of  the  Galapagos 
archipelago,  which  comprises  fifteen  islands  that  are  intersected  by  the 
equator,  600  miles  from  the  Ecuador  coast.  The  total  area  of  the  group 
is  2,250  square  miles  and  of  Chatham  Island  about  400  square  miles. 
Of  the  several  islands  only  Charles,  Chatham  and  Albemarle  are  in- 
habited, used  by  the  Ecuador  Government  as  penal  settlements  for 
political  offenders.  The  islands  are  volcanic  in  origin  and  generally 
barren,  the  coasts  being  the  resort  of  giant  turtles  which  were  formerly 
extensively  hunted.  The  productions  are  bananas,-  Indian  corn  and 
sweet  potatoes,  that  grow  in  the  black  fertile  mud  of  the  higher  parts. 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  a  famous  battle  of  the  Civil  War  in  which 
Bragg,  with  an  army  of  33,000  available,  was  utterly  routed  by  Grant, 
who  could  use  about  60,000.  Bragg,  after  defeating  Rosecrans  at  Chick- 
amauga,  advanced  upon  Chattanooga  and  Grant  hastened  to  meet 
him.  Bragg's  army  extended  about  twelve  miles,  lying  along  Lookout 
Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge  with  its  center  stretching  across  Chat- 
tanooga valley.  The  battle  took  place  November  23-25,  1863.  Grant 
placed  Sherman  on  his  left  facing  Missionary  Ridge,  Thomas  in  the 
center  across  the  valley  and  Hooker  on  his  right  opposite  Lookout 
Mountain.  Laying  two  bridges  across  the  Tennessee  River  on  the 
night  of  the  23d,  Sherman  crossed  and  attempted  to  attack  Missionary 
Ridge.  Hooker,  on  the  24th,  made  a  detour  of  Lookout  Mountain, 
climbed  its  heights  and  dispersed  the  Confederates  stationed  there. 
This  was  called  the  "  battle  of  the  clouds."  On  the  25th  Grant,  per- 
ceiving that  Bragg  was  massing  his  forces  against  Sherman,  ordered 
Thomas  to  advance  against  the  Confederate  center.  Thomas  broke  the 
center  and  followed  Sherman  to  Missionary  Ridge.  The  Confederates 
were  routed,  their  guns  being  captured  and  turned  against  them,    Th$ 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  139 

defeat  of  the  entire  Confederate  army  followed  and  Bragg  joined  the 
flight. 

Chauncy,  Isaac  (1 772-1840),  naval  officer,  distinguished  himself 
in  naval  actions  off  Tripoli.  In  1812-1814  he  commanded  the  fleet  on 
Lake  Ontario,  displaying  great  skill  and  energy,  and  gained  important 
advantages  over  the  British. 

Chautauqua,  an  educational  institution  with  headquarters  at  Lake 
Chautauqua,  New  York,  organized  in  1874  by  Lewis  Miller,  of  Akron, 
O.,  and  the  Rev.  John  H.  Vincent.  The  first  assembly  was  called  for 
the  discussion  of  religious  and  secular  topics,  and  opened  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  August,  1874.  Since  then  the  assembly  has  been  held  reg- 
ularly every  year,  and  a  vast  system  of  education  by  reading  at  home 
has  been  organized. 

Cheat  Mountain  Pass,  W.  Va.,  a  strong  position  occupied  by 
General  Reynolds  of  McClellan's  army  with  a  small  force.  Skirmish- 
ing occurred  September  12,  13  and  14,  Lee  endeavoring  to  drive 
Reynolds  from  the  pass.  Reynolds'  troops  numbered  less  than  half  of 
Lee's,  but  so  impregnable  was  his  position  that  Lee  found  it  impossible 
to  dislodge  him.  October  3,  1861,  Lee  having  departed  for  the  South, 
the  pass  was  occupied  by  General  H.  R.  Jackson,  of  Georgia,  whom 
Reynolds  in  his  turn  in  vain  endeavored  to  dislodge. 

Chemung,  Battle  of,  August  29,  1779,  an  engagement  between 
Sullivan's  troops  and  the  Indian  and  Tory  force  of  Western  New  York, 
during  Sullivan's  march  on  Fort  Niagara.  The  savages  commanded  by 
Brant  and  Johnson  fought  bravely,  but  were  at  length  routed  by  bring- 
ing artillery  into  action. 

Cherokee  Indians  down  to  1830  occupied  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Tennessee  River.  They  supported  the  English  against  the  French.  In 
1755  they  ceded  lands  to  Governor  Glen  and  permitted  the  construction  of 
English  forts  within  their  territory.  In  1757  difficulties  arose  which  led 
to  hostilities  with  the  English,  finally  terminated  by  the  Cherokees'  de- 
feat in  1761.  In  1773  they  ceded  to  Georgia  a  large  tract  of  land.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  Revolution  they  joined  the  English,  and  in  1780 
served  at  Augusta.  They  were  finally  reduced  by  General  Pickens  and 
acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States  (November  28, 
1785).  They  ceded  other  portions  of  their  territory,  and  in  1790  a  part 
of  the  tribe  migrated  to  Louisiana.  The  Cherokees  rendered  important 
services  in  Jackson's  army  in  1812,  but  the  Georgians  desired  to  get  rid  of 
them.  In  181 7  they  ceded  lands  to  the  United  States,  who  in  turn  pro- 
vided lands  on  the  Arkansas  and  White.     Here  3,000  emigrated  iu 


i4o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

1818,  and  finally  in  1835  the  remainder  found  homes  in  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, west  of  the  lands  given  the  first  immigrants.  During  the  Civil 
War  they  first  joined  the  Confederates,  taking  part  in  the  battle  at  Pea 
Ridge,  but  afterward  were  separated  into  two  parties.     (See  next  art. ) 

Cherokee  Nation  vs.  Georgia,  an  important  case  before  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  decided  in  183 1.  By  the  Hopewell  treaty  of  1785 
the  United  States  recognized  the  Cherokees  as  a  nation  capable  of 
making  peace  and  war,  of  governing  its  citizens  and  of  owning  and  gov- 
erning its  lands.  About  1826  the  Georgia  Legislature  through  Gov- 
ernor Troup  declared  these  treaties  not  binding  upon  the  State,  on  the 
ground  that  Georgia  and  the  Federal  Government  were  equal  and  in- 
dependent powers,  and  that  disputes  between  them  could  not  be  decided 
by  the  Supreme  Court,  but  by  negotiation.  In  1830  an  act  was  passed 
by  the  Georgia  Legislature  authorizing  a  survey  and  apportionment  of 
the  Cherokee  lands  within  the  State,  their  gold  mines  were  seized  and 
they  were  considered  under  the  State's  dominion,  thus  ousting  the 
Cherokees  from  the  land  solemnly  guaranteed  by  the  United  States. 
The  Cherokees  applied  to  President  Jackson  without  success.  Then 
they  tried  the  Supreme  Court.  This  court  decided  them  not  a 
foreign  State,  capable  of  maintaining  an  action  in  the  court,  but  a  do- 
mestic, dependent  nation.  The  injunction  was  refused  and  the  Chero- 
kees relegated  to  the  mercy  of  Georgia.  Later,  in  the  case  of  Worcester 
vs.  Georgia,  State  authority  in  such  matters  was  denied  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  Federal  treaties  being  declared  to  have  precedence. 

Cherry  Valley,  Massacre  of.  On  December  10, 1778,  the  village 
of  Cherry  Valley,  in  Central  New  York,  was  destroyed  by  700  Tories 
and  Indians.  About  fifty  inhabitants  were  murdered  without  regard  to 
age  or  sex.  Many  persons  of  refinement  were  among  the  victims.  Such 
atrocities  as  this  and  that  of  the  Wyoming  thoroughly  incensed  the 
colonists  against  Tory  methods  of  warfare. 

Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal.  This  canal  was  begun  in 
1825,  and  Congress,  by  Act  of  March  3,  1825,  appropriated  $300,000  to 
be  subscribed  to  its  stock.  This  was  among  the  first  acts  relating  to 
internal  improvement. 

"Chesapeake"  and  "  jeopard  "  Affair.  In  1807  three  negro 
sailors  deserted  from  the  British  man-of-war  "  Melampus  "  and  enlisted 
on  the  United  States  ship  "Chesapeake."  The  British  squadron  was 
then  just  within  the  Virginia  capes.  The  British  admiral  demanded  a 
surrender  of  the  sailors.  This  was  refused  by  our  government.  Ac- 
cordingly, June  22,  as  the  "  Chesapeake,"  in  a  half-prepared  condition, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  141 

was  sailing  out  from  Hampton  Roads,  a  lieutenant  from  the  British  ship 
"Leopard"  boarded  her  and  again  demanded  the  deserters.  Upon 
being  refused,  Captain  Humphrey  immediately  opened  fire  upon  the 
"  Chesapeake,"  which  Commodore  Barron,  who  was  wholly  unprepared, 
was  compelled  to  surrender  without  firing  a  gun.  President  Jefferson 
at  once  issued  a  proclamation  demanding  a  disavowal  of  the  act,  the 
restoration  of  the  captured  sailors  and  the  recall  of  Admiral  Berkeley. 
Though  some  tardy  reparation  was  made,  the  affair  greatly  exasperated 
American  opinion  against  the  British,  and  contributed  to  bring  on  the 
War  of  1812. 

"Chesapeake"  and  "Shannon."  The  "  Chesapeake,"  thirty- 
eight  guns,  Captain  Lawrence,  was  challenged  by  the  "Shannon,"  a 
British  thirty-eight  gun  vessel,  but  then  carrying  fifty-two  guns.  June 
1,  1813,  was  the  day  set  for  the  duel,  which  took  place  near  Boston. 
After  twelve  minutes  the"  Chesapeake  "  became  unmanageable  through 
its  injuries.  Its  decks  were  now  swept  by  the  guns  of  the  "  Shannon." 
Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded  and  was  carried  below  with  the  ex- 
hortation, "  Don't  give  up  the  ship."  The  boarders  from  the  "Shan- 
non "  now  swarmed  over  the  sides,  and  after  a  severe  struggle  were 
victorious.  The  American  loss  was  146  men,  the  British  eighty-four. 
The  "Shannon"  sailed  at  once  to  Halifax  with  its  prize,  which  was 
afterward  sold  to  the  government  and  used  as  a  war  vessel.  In  1820  it 
was  sold  as  old  timber  and  used  as  building  material. 

Chester,  Pa.,  oldest  town  in  the  State,  was  settled  by  Swedes  in 
1643,  an(l  originally  called  Upland.  The  provisional  assembly  of 
William  Penn's  Government  was  held  here  in  1682. 

Chestnut  Hill,  Pa.,  scene  of  a  sharp  skirmish,  December  4,  1777, 
between  the  British  troops,  under  Howe,  and  the  Pennsylvania  militia, 
led  by  General  James  Irvine.  The  militia  fled  and  Irvine  was  left 
wounded  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Cheves,  I^angdon  (1776-1857),  of  South  Carolina,  statesman,  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1810  ;  was  chairman  of  the  Naval  Committee  in 
1812  and  of  that  of  Ways  and  Means  in  1813.  In  1814  he  succeeded 
Henry  Clay  as  Speaker,  serving  during  Clay's  absence  in  Europe,  one 
year.  He  was  president  of  the  United  States  Bank  1819-1822.  In  1832 
he  condemned  nullification  as  not  sufficiently  thorough-going. 

Cheyennes,  an  Indian  tribe  of  the  Algonquin  family,  settled  near 
the  Black  Hills  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  1825 
the  first  treaty  of  friendship  was  made  with  them  by  General  Atkinson. 
The  tribe  separated  later,  and  one  part  moved  south.     A  number  of 


i42  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

treaties  between  both  divisions  of  the  tribe  and  the  United  States  werfi 
executed.  The  failure  to  fulfill  the  one  of  1861  led  to  war.  Negotia- 
tions for  peace  were  being  made,  when,  on  November  29,  1864,  Colonel 
Chevington  attacked  the  Sandy  Creek  village,  and  massacred  100  Chey- 
ennes.  A  disastrous  war  followed.  In  1865  the  southern  division 
agreed  to  go  on  a  reservation,  except  the  Dog  Soldiers  whose  village 
was  burned  by  General  Hancock  in  1867.  This  led  to  another  disastrous 
war,  in  which  General  Custer  defeated  them  at  Washita.  The  northern 
band  continued  peaceable. 

Chicago,  111.,  was  organized  as  a  town  in  1833,  and  became  a  city 
in  1837.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  French  built 
a  fort  011  the  site  of  the  present  city,  and  later  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment erected  a  fort  (Fort  Dearborn)  which  was  not  abandoned  until 
1837.  On  October  8,  1871,  Chicago  was  visited  by  the  most  disastrous 
fire  of  modern  times.  Chicago  University  was  opened  here  in  1892,  and 
here  in  1893  the  Columbian  Exposition  was  held.  The  population  of 
Chicago  was,  in  1840,  4,479 ;  1850,  29,963  ;  i860,  109,206  ;  1870,  306,605  ; 
1880,  503,185  ;  1890,   1,099,880. 

Chicago,  University  of,  was  first  founded  1857,  but  closed  1886 
through  financial  troubles.  In  1890  it  was  entirely  reorganized,  largely 
through  the  gifts  of  John  D.  Rockefeller,  and  now  has  an  endowment  of 
over  seven  millions. 

Chickamauga,  Ga.,  a  bloody  battle  of  the  Civil  War  between 
Rosecrans  and  Bragg,  commanding  57,000  Federals  and  71,000  Confed- 
erates respectively.  It  occurred  September  19-20,  1863.  The  Federals 
were  badly  defeated.  They  lost  11,135  men  and  the  Confederates  15,- 
801.  Rosecrans  was  marching  on  Chattanooga,  Bragg  slowly  retreating 
and  expecting  reinforcements  before  he  should  decide  to  give  battle. 
These  reinforcements  came  suddenly  and  unknown  to  Rosecrans.  Bragg 
suddenly  halted  at  Chickamauga,  and  deployed  his  troops  for  battle. 
Rosecrans  placed  his  troops  with  Thomas  on  the  left,  Crittenden  in  the 
center  and  McCook  on  the  right,  along  the  Chickamauga  Creek.  Sep- 
tember 19  the  Confederates  crossed  the  creek,  and  Polk  struck  Thomas' 
line.  That  general  speedily  returned  the  assault,  thereby  confusing 
Bragg's  plan.  September  20  Thomas  was  again  attacked.  He  had  fre- 
quently to  call  for  reinforcements,  though  he  held  his  position  stoutly. 
Finally  General  Wood,  misinterpreting  an  order,  made  a  false  move, 
which  precipitated  the  Confederate  attack  upon  a  weak  point  in  the 
Federal  line,  and  the  day  was  lost.  Rosecrans  fled  to  Chattanooga,  but 
Thomas  kept  fighting  until  Garfield  was  sent  to  summon  him.  Here  he 
acquired  his  sobriquet  of  "  The  Rock  of  Chickamauga." 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  143 

Chickasaw  Indians,  first  known  to  the  whites  as  residing  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  They  early  joined  the  English  against  the  French  and 
in  1739  entered  into  friendly  relations  with  General  Oglethorpe.  In 
1765  their  head-men  with  those  of  the  Choctaws  met  Governor  George 
Johnson  in  a  congress  at  Mobile  and  established  friendly  trade  relations. 
By  the  treaty  of  1786  their  territory  was  fixed  with  a  boundary  at  the 
Ohio  on  the  north  and  extended  down  into  what  is  now  Mississippi. 
They  continued  friendly  with  the  whites  during  Indian  hostilities  and 
aided  them  against  the  Creeks  in  1793.  By  treaties  in  1805,  1816  and 
18 18  they  ceded  all  their  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi,  some  of  the  tribe 
having  previously,  about  the  year  1800,  migrated  to  the  Arkansas.  In 
1832  and  1834  the  Chickasaws  ceded  the  remainder  of  their  lands  and 
migrated  to  the  territory  of  the  Choctaws,  with  whom  they  lived  under 
one  government  until  1855,  when  they  were  granted  a  political  separa- 
tion.    Early  in  the  Civil  War  they  took  sides  with  the  South. 

Chihuahua,  Mexico,  occupied  by  an  American  army  under 
Doniphan,  February  28,  1847.  Doniphan  had  been  sent  by  General 
Kearny  to  relieve  General  Wool,  who  had  been  dispatched  on  an  expe- 
dition against  Chihuahua  in  October,  1846.  Wool  had,  however,  failed 
of  his  destination.  Doniphan  took  possession  of  Chihuahua  without 
difficulty,  experiencing  no  opposition.  He  retained  possession  of  the 
city  and  then  abandoned  it,  finding  that  Wool  did  not  seem  likely  to 
join  him.     His  troops  were  led  to  New  Orleans  and  there  disbanded. 

Childs,  George  William  (1829-1894),  of  Philadelphia,  publisher. 
In  1864  he  became  proprietor  of  the  Public  Ledger,  the  wealth  derived 
from  which  he  liberally  used  for  public  purposes. 

Chili.  The  independence  of  Chili  was  recognized  by  the  United 
States  in  March,  1822.  A  general  commercial  convention  between  the 
United  States  and  Chili  was  concluded  in  1832  and  augmented  in  1833. 
By  the  convention  of  1858  the  "  Macedonian  "  claims  of  United  States 
citizens  against  Chili  were  left  to  the  arbitration  of  the  King  of  Belgium, 
who  decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States.  The  attack  on  the  sailors  of 
the  U.  S.  steamship  "  Baltimore,"  October  16,  1891,  by  a  Chilian  mob, 
has  necessitated  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  of  $75,000  from  Chili. 
The  Chilian  Congress  of  1891,  victorious  in  its  revolution  against  Bal- 
maceda,  established  a  provisional  government  June  4,  which  was 
promptly  recognized  by  the  United  States. 

China.  By  the  treaty  with  China  of  1844,  all  citizens  of  the  United 
States  enjoy  complete  rights  of  extra-territoriality.  These  rights,  to- 
gether with  commercial  regulations,  were  still  more  firmly  secured  by 


144  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  treaty  of  1858.  In  November  of  the  same  year  a  convention  for  the 
regulation  of  the  tariff  was  concluded,  and  a  convention  for  the  settle- 
ment of  claims  against  China.  A  treaty  embodying  additional  regula- 
tions to  that  of  1858  was  concluded  July  28,  1868.  These  regulations 
granted  chiefly  the  right  to  exchange  consuls,  the  right  of  religious 
liberty,  the  right  of  voluntary  emigration.  The  two  treaties  of  Novem- 
ber 17,  1880,  regulated  Chinese  immigration  into  the  United  States, 
prohibited  the  importation  of  opium,  and  further  regulated  judicial  pro- 
cedure. 

Chinese  Immigration.  The  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
China  date  back  to  1844,  when  Caleb  Cushing  negotiated  the  first  treaty, 
by  which  five  Chinese  ports  were  opened  for  trade  purposes,  and  the 
protection  of  American  life  and  property  in  China  and  extra-territorial 
consular  jurisdiction  granted  the  United  States.  The  Reed  treaty  of 
1858  gained  still  greater  advantages.  Under  the  Burlingame  treaty  of 
1868  the  right  of  migration  was  acknowledged  inalienable,  and  the  ex- 
press promise  was  made  that  "the  subjects  of  China  shall  enjoy  the 
same  privileges,  immunities  and  exemptions  in  respect  to  travel  and 
residence  as  may  be  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  and  subjects  of  the  most 
favored  nation."  The  census  of  1880  showed  105,000  resident  Chinese. 
They  had  become  obnoxious  to  the  Calif  ornians.  They  were  persecuted, 
and  every  effort  made  to  have  the  treaty  of  1868  abrogated.  It  was  said 
that  they  could  not  be  assimilated  and  that  their  habits  were  vicious. 
In  1876  the  report  of  the  Chinese  Committee  was  violently  denunciatory 
of  the  Chinese.  In  1879  a  bill  for  the  restriction  of  Chinese  immigration 
passed  both  Houses,  but  was  vetoed  by  President  Hayes.  In  1880  a 
commission  sent  to  China  negotiated  an  agreement  under  which  immi- 
gration could  be  partially  prohibited.  Chinamen  leaving  this  country 
could  not  return  unless  possessed  of  a  certificate  issued  by  the  United 
States  Government,  proving  their  former  residence.  In  1885,  twenty- 
eight  Chinamen  were  murdered  by  miners  in  Wyoming  for  refusing  to 
join  a  strike  and  $147,000  of  property  was  destroyed.  In  1888  a  bill  was 
passed  and  signed  by  the  President,  excluding  Chinese  immigration  and 
rendering  certificates  of  returning  Chinamen  valueless.  This  was  because 
of  China's  tardiness  in  ratifying  a  new  treaty.  In  1892  Congress  passed 
the  "  Geary  Act,"  in  accordance  with  which  any  Chinaman  adjudged  to 
be  not  lawfully  entitled  to  remain  in  the  United  States  should  be  re- 
moved to  China  ;  all  Chinese  laborers  should  be  obliged  to  procure  cer- 
tificates of  residence  from  the  collectors  of  internal  revenue,  and  any 
who  did  not  do  so  within  a  year  should  be  sent  back  to  China.  Means 
of  executing  the  act  failing,  it  was  partially  rescinded  in  1893. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  145 

Chippewa  (Canada,  opposite  Niagara),  scene  of  a  battle  in  the  War 
of  1&12.'  After  the  capture  of  Fort  Erie,  General  Brown  advanced  to 
attack  the  British  at  Chippewa,  July  5,  1814  ;  the  armies  were  only  two 
miles  apart.  The  British  advance  corps  fled  back  upon  the  advancing 
main  body.  The  British  charge  was  successful  at  first,  but  repeated  ral- 
lies, reinforcements  and  finally  a  flank  movement  changed  the  day. 
The  fugitives  destroyed  the  bridge  over  the  Chippewa,  and  stopped  the 
pursuit.  The  American  loss  was  355  in  all,  the  British  604,  of  whom 
236  were  killed. 

Chisholm  vs.  Georgia,  an  important  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court.  In  1792  Alexander  Chisholm,  of  South  Carolina,  brought  suit 
against  the  State  of  Georgia  for  the  payment  of  a  private  claim.  Coun- 
sel for  the  plaintiff  argued  that  this  court  was  vested  by  the  Constitution 
with  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  this  sort,  and  that  the  plaintiff  could  legally 
recover.  The  court  found  judgment  for  the  plaintiff  upon  this  ground, 
and  a  writ  0/  inquiry  was  issued,  but  never  executed,  since  the  Legisla- 
ture of  Georgia  passed  an  act  making  the  execution  of  such  a  writ  pun- 
ishable by  death.  The  Eleventh  Amendment  was  at  once  resolved  upon. 
In  1798  the  Supreme  Court  declared  the  Eleventh  Amendment  to  have 
been  constitutionally  adopted,  and  renounced  its  jurisdiction  in  such 
cases. 

Choate,  Joseph  H.,  of  New  York,  a  celebrated  lawyer.  He  was 
born  in  1832  in  Salem,  Mass.  President  McKinley  appointed  him  Am- 
bassador to  England  December,  1898. 

Choate,  Rufus  (1 799-1 859),  of  Massachusetts,  lawyer.  He  was  grad- 
uated as  valedictorian,  at  Dartmouth,  in  1819,  when  he  was  already  re- 
markable for  scholarship.  In  1821  he  studied  law  with  William  Wirt  in 
Baltimore,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  Bar  in  1823,  at  which 
he  soon  took  the  foremost  place  as  an  advocate.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  1831-35,  and  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  1841-45,  in  which  he  made 
many  brillian,t  speeches,  notably  one  against  the  annexation  of  Texas. 

Choctaw  Indians,  originally  occupying  lands  along  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  early  took  sides  with  the  French  •  but  later  a  part  became 
friendly  to  the  English.  They  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States  in  1786.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  a 
migratory  movement  to  the  west  was  begun.  They  served  in  the  war 
with  England  and  in  the  Creek  War!  In  1820  they  ceded  a  part  of 
their  territory  to  the  government  for  lands  west  of  Arkansas.  Georgia 
assumed  control  over  their  lands  in  the  East,  giving  the  Indians  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  In  1830  they  ceded  the  remainder  of  their  lands 
Vol.  V.— 10 


i46  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

and  moved  west  with  the   Chickasaws.     By  joining  the  Confederate 
cause  they  lost  their  civil  rights.     New  treaties  were  made  in  1866. 

Christian  Endeavor*  JYoung  People's  Society  of,  was  first 
established  by  Rev.  F.  E.  Clark  at  Portland,  Me.,  February  2,  1881. 
There  are  now  more  than  22,000  societies  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  with 
1,500,000  members. 

Christiana  Case  (185 1)  grew  out  of  an  attempt  of  Edward  Gorsuch 
and  a  Maryland  party  to  seize  a  fugitive  slave  in  Christiana,  Pa.  A  riot 
followed  and  Gorsuch  was  killed.  Castner  Hanway,  a  Quaker  in  feeble 
health,  was  ordered  by  Marshal  Kline  to  assist  in  quelling  the  disturb- 
ance. The  Quaker  refused,  though  he  tried  to  prevent  bloodshed.  He 
was  subsequently  charged  with  treason,  and  later  with  riot  and  blood- 
shed, together  with  Elijah  Lewis,  another  Quaker.  No  indictments 
were  found,  but  the  case  became  notorious. 

Chrystler's  Field  (St.  Lawrence  River),  War  of  1812.  General 
Wilkinson  with  the  main  body  of  the  American  army  here  fought  a 
slightly  superior  force  of  British.  The  battle  lasted  five  hours,  victory 
alternately  favoring  one  and  then  the  other.  Night  ended  the  conflict, 
with  the  British  in  possession  of  the  field.  The  American  loss  was 
especially  severe  ;  many  of  the  bravest  officers  were  killed  or  wounded. 
The  total  American  loss  was  339  ;  the  British,  187  killed,  wounded  and 
missing. 

Church,  Benjamin  (1639-17 18),  of  Massachusetts,  soldier,  was 
active  in  King  Philip's  War,  was  in  the  Great  Swamp  Fight  in  the 
Narragansett  country,  and  finally  compassed  Philip's  death  on  August 
12,  1676. 

Church  and  State  in  America.  The  relationship  of  Church  and 
State  in  the  United  States  differs  from  all  previous  relationships  in 
Europe  and  in  the  colonies.  In  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, the  Congregational  Church  was  established  ;  in  most  of  the 
others  the  Church  of  England.  Rhode  Island,  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 
vania early  provided  for  religious  freedom.  The  Revolution  brought 
disestablishment  and  religious  freedom  in  several  States.  There  are 
two  provisions  in  the  Constitution  of  1787  bearing  on  the  question  of 
religion  which  secure  its  freedom  and  independence.  In  Article  VI. 
it  is  declared  that  "  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualifi- 
cation to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States."  But  this 
was  not  deemed  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  absolute  religious  freedom, 
so  the  first  amendment  was  to  the  effect  that  • '  Congress  shall  make  no 
law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  147 

exercise  thereof."  In  the  Legislatures  of  some  of  the  States  a  fear  was 
early  expressed  that  government  might  pass  into  the  hands  of  Roman 
Catholics,  Jews  or  infidels,  but  the  spirit  of  freedom  everywhere  proved 
too  strong  to  admit  of  religious  tests  in  matters  of  government.  State 
conventions  held  to  ratify  the  Constitution  all  proposed  amendments 
guaranteeing  religious  freedom.  Hence  followed  the  first  amendment. 
There  are  of  course  certain  limitations  to  religious  liberty,  which  have 
been  set  by  law.  In  1882,  in  the  case  of  the  Mormons,  Congress  pro- 
hibited polygamy  and  was  sustained  by  the  Supreme  Court. 

Church  Members'  Suffrage.  In  163 1  a  law  was  enacted  by  the 
Massachusetts  Assembly,  providing  that  no  man  should  be  a  freeman 
of  the  colony  unless  he  became  a  member  of  some  church.  This  re- 
quirement was  abolished  under  the  charter  of  1691.  A  similar  rule 
prevailed  in  the  New  Haven  colony,  1639- 1662. 

Churubusco,  Mexico,  a  small  village  near  the  city  of  Mexico, 
where,  on  August  20,  1847,  the  advance  divisions  of  Taylor's  forces, 
pursuing -the  fugitives  of  Padierna,  encountered  Santa  Anna's  soldiers. 
The  convent  of  San  Pablo  was  the  strong  point,  and  against  this  Twiggs 
was  sent,  Worth  advancing  toward  the  .south  and  Quitman  and  Pillow 
co-operating  against  Santa  Anna's  rear.  The  hottest  fighting  took 
place  along  .he  Rio  Churubusco,  where  for  some  hours  the  Americans 
seemed  threatened  with  defeat,  but  rallying  they  drove  the  Mexicans 
before  them  and  carried  the  river  dikes  with  their  tite  de  pont,  the  key 
to  Santa  Anna's  position.  The  attack  was  then  concentrated  upon  the 
convent  of  San  Pablo,  Worth,  Smith  and  Clarke  joining  with  Twiggs. 
Worth's  guns  were  directed  from  an  utterly  unsuspected  and  unguarded 
quarter,  throwing  the  garrison  into  confusion.  The  white  flag  was  im- 
mediately raised  and  the  stronghold  surrendered.  Numbers  engaged  : 
Americans,  8,000  ;  Mexicans,  25,000. 

Cibolo,  a  legendary  country  containing  seven  wonderful  Indian 
cities,  supposed  by  explorers  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  be  located 
either  in  Florida  or  Northern  Mexico.  The  legend  originated  from  the 
story  of  the  flight  of  a  Portuguese  Archbishop,  who  during  the  conquest 
of  Spain  by  the  Arabs  escaped  to  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  and 
founded  seven  cities.  Numerous,  and  in  nearly  every  instance  fatal, 
expeditions  were  sent  in  search  of  these  mythical  cities.  That  of 
Pamfilo  de  Narvaez,  of  1527,  to  Florida  was  especially  disastrous. 

Cilley,  Jonathan  (1802-1838),  of  Maine,  was  Speaker  of  the  Maine 
House  of  Representatives  in  1836,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1837  as  a 
Democrat  and  served  till  his  death,  which  was  the  result  of  a  duel  with 
Congressman  Graves,  of  Kentuckv. 


14.8  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Cincinnati,  O.,  was  settled  in  1788  by  persons  from  New  Jersey. 
The  village  was  lrid  out  in  1789  under  the  name  of  LosantiviUe,  and 
received  its  present  name  in  1790.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1814.  The  introduction  of  steamboats  on  the  Ohio  had  a  great  influence 
in  extending  the  trade  of  the  city.  In  September,  1862,  martial  law 
was  for  a  brief  time  declared,  when  an  attack  by  the  Confederate  troops 
was  expected  on  the  city. 

Cincinnati,  Society  of  the,  an  organization  founded  in  1783  by 
Revolutionary  officers.  Membership  was  first  extended  mainly  to  the 
officers  and  their  eldest  sons,  though  a  number  of  French  officers  were 
included.  The  principle  of  hereditary  membership  aroused  popular 
jealousy.  A  pamphlet  was  published  against  it,  the  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  denounced  it,  and  the  Legislatures  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island  and  Pennsylvania  censured  it.  In  1784  Washington  persuaded 
the  order  to  abandon  the  hereditary  feature.     The  society  still  exists. 

Cipher  Dispatches,  certain  telegraphic  communications  regarding 
the  presidential  election  of  1876,  which  were  delivered  by  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company  to  the  Senate  Committee  on  Privileges  and 
Elections,  to  aid  in  the  investigations  of  the  election  frauds.  While 
in  the  possession  of  this  committee  in  1878,  some  700  of  these  dispatches 
were  taken  and  made  public,  chiefly  through  the  New  York  Tribune. 
They  were  sent  by  friends  of  Tilden,  the  Democratic  candidate,  and 
purported  to  arrange  for  the  payment  of  certain  moneys  to  ensure  the 
carrying  of  South  Carolina  and  Florida  for  Tilden.  The  latter  in  an 
open  letter  denied  all  knowledge  of  the  dispatches. 

Circleville,  a  town  of  7,000  population,  25  miles  south  of  Columbus, 
on  the  Scioto.  The  place  was  founded  in  1810  on  the  site  of  an  abo- 
riginal circular  fort.  Seven  miles  southeast  was  the  site  of  Camp 
Charlotte,  where  Lord  Dunmore  maije  a  treaty  with  the  Indians,  1774. 
Four  miles  south  of  Circleville  is  the  place  where  the  Indian  chief 
Logan  made  his  famous  speech. 

Circuit  Courts.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  provided  for  two  classes 
of  United  States  courts  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court— circuit  courts 
and  district  courts,  but  not  for  circuit  judges.  The  circuit  courts,  from 
that  time  to  1869,  were  held  by  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  or  by 
district  judges.  In  February,  1801,  the  Federalists,  trying  to  extend 
the  scope  of  the  Federal  judiciary,  provided  for  sixteen  circuit  judges  ; 
but  the  Republicans  promptly  repealed  this  in  1802.  Beginning  with 
three,  the  circuits  have  increased  to  nine.  In  1869  provision  was  made 
for  special  judges  for  the  circuit  courts,  and  the  New  York  circuit  has 
since  been  given  an  additional  one. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  149 

Circuit  Court  of  Appeals.  By  increase  of  business  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  had  fallen  much  in  arrears  with  its  cases.  After  many 
projects  had  been  discussed,  Congress,  in  1891,  provided  for  an  addi- 
tional circuit  judge  in  each  circuit,  and  established  in  each  a  circuit 
court  of  appeals,  to  consist  of  its  circuit  and  district  judges  and  a 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  new  court  to  have  final  jurisdiction 
over  appeals  from  the  district  and  circuit  courts,  except  in  constitutional, 
prize  and  capital  cases,  and  in  questions  of  the  jurisdiction  of  these 
courts. 

Citronella,  Ala.  Here,  April  8,  1865,  the  Federals  under  Canby 
defeated  Dick  Taylor,  who  commanded  a  strong  force  of  Confederates. 
This  occurred  after  the  evacuation  of  Mobile  by  Maury,  May  8,  on  the 
news  of  Johnston's  capitulation.  Taylor  surrendered  all  the  Confederate 
forces  east  of  the  Mississippi  to  Canby  at  Citronella. 

Civil  Rights  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Congress  over  President  John- 
son's veto  April  9,  1866,  aiming  to  place  the  negro  on  the  same  civil 
footing  as  the  whites.  Its  principal  section  provided  that  all  persons 
born  in  the  United  States,  and  not  subjected  to  any  foreign  power,  ex- 
cluding Indians  not  taxed,  were  to  be  recognized  as  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  The  violation  of  this  act  was  made  a  misdemeanor  to 
be  considered  by  the  Federal  courts  alone.  The  President  was  given 
power  to  enforce  the  act  by  special  or  military  force.  The  controversy 
over  the  constitutionality  of  the  act  led  to  the  framing  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment,  passed  June  13,  1866.  After  this,  a  more  stringent  act  to 
secure  the  civil  rights  of  the  negro  was  passed  in  1875.  But  the  Su- 
preme Court  in  1883  declared  its  most  important  sections  unconstitu- 
tional. 

Civil  Rights  Cases,  being  those  of  United  States  vs.  Stanley, 
United  States  vs.  Ryan,  United  States  vs.  Nichols,  United  States  vs. 
Singleton  and  Robinson  and  Wife  vs.  Memphis  and  Charleston  Rail- 
road Company.  They  were  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  1883,  on  certificates  of  division  from  the  circuit  courts 
respectively  of  Kansas,  California,  Missouri,  New  York  and  Tennessee. 
The  cases  against  Stanley  and  Nichols  were  on  indictments  for  denying 
to  certain  persons  the  privileges  of  a  hotel,  against  Ryan  and  Singleton 
for  denying  the  privileges  of  a  theater.  Robinson  sued  the  railroad 
company  for  refusing  his  wife,  a  colored  woman,  the  privileges  of  the 
ladies'  car.  In  this  latter  case  and  that  of  Ryan,  in  which  a  colored 
person  was  plaintiff,  judgment  was  confirmed  for  the  plaintiff,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  violation  of  sections  one  and  two  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution.     In  the  other  case  judgment  was  found 


150  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

for  the  defendants,  certain  sections  of  the  Civil  Rights  Act  of  1875  being 
deemed  unconstitutional  and  void. 

Civil  Service  Commission,  a  commission  created  under  the  civil 
service  law  prepared  by  Senator  Pendleton,  of  Ohio,  and  approved  Jan- 
uary 16,  1S83.  The  commission  was  to  consist  of  three  persons,  at  an 
annual  salary  of  $3,500,  appointed  by  the  President,  to  regulate  and 
supervise  the  examination  of  candidates  for  civil  service  offices,  and  to 
report  on  all  matters  touching  the  civil  service  system.  An  earlier  com- 
mission had  existed  from  1871  to  1873. 

Civil  Service  Reform.  The  evils  of  the  "spoils  system"  had 
long  been  felt,  when  in  1865  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Jenckes,  of  Rhode  Island, 
introduced  into  the  House  his  first  bill  to  reform  the  civil  service.  It 
was  defeated  several  times.  In  187 1  an  act  was  passed  giving  the  Pres- 
ident authority  to  prescribe  rules  for  admission  into  the  civil  service. 
A  civil  service  commission  was  appointed,  with  George  William  Curtis 
at  its  head,  and  began  the  work  of  introducing  tests  of  fitness  in  the 
place  of  political  influence.  But  in  1873  Congress  discontinued  its  ap- 
propriation for  the  commission,  and  in  1874  President  Grant  abandoned 
the  system.  In  1883  the  Pendleton  Act,  so  called  from  Senator  Pendle- 
ton, of  Ohio,  was  passed.  It  provided  for  a  civil  sendee  commission  of 
three,  representing  both  parties,  which  should  provide  competitive  ex- 
aminations for  entrance  into  such  classes  of  the  civil  service  as  the 
President  should  designate.  The  President  (Arthur)  applied  the  system 
at  once  to  the  departments  at  Washington,  and  to  all  custom-houses  and 
post-offices  where  more  than  fifty  clerks  were  employed.  It  has  since 
been  extended  to  the  railway  mail  service  and  to  the  Indian  service,  etc., 
and  now  includes  some  seventy  or  more  thousand  employes  in  its  scope. 
President  McKinley,  in  1899,  exempted  from  4,000  to  10,000  places  from 
its  action. 

Civil  War.  Sectional  differences  had  prevailed  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  existence  of  the  Union.  After  the  time  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  of  1820,  their  main  basis  was  the  economic  and  social 
divergence  between  North  and  South  caused  by  the  existence  of  slavery 
This  caused  frequent  tendencies  to  disruption,  which  increased  after 
1850.  Disunion  sentiment  was  brought  to  a  head  by  the  election  of 
Lincoln  in  i860.  Secessions  of  the  Southern  States  immediately  fol- 
lowed. In  February,  1861,  the  seceding  States,  in  provisional  Congress 
at  Montgomery,  formed  the  Confederate  States  of  America.  Most  per- 
sons, North  and  South,  at  first  expected  peaceable  separation.  Buchanan 
temporized.  Lincoln  could  not  be  clear  of  his  course  at  first.  But 
the  firing  on    Fort  Sumter  precipitated   conflict.     President   Lincoln 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  151 

called  for  troops  to  enforce  the  authority  of  the  Union,  and  the  border 
States  seceded.  The  eleven  seceding  States  had  a  population  of  9,000,- 
000,  of  whom  3,500,000  were  slaves  ;  the  remaining  States  had  a  popula- 
tion of  22,000,000.  The  North  was  rich  and  of  varied  industrial  life, 
the  South  poor  and  almost  entirely  agricultural.  The  North  was  less 
united  than  the  South,  and  of  a  less  military  spirit.  Unscientific  as 
was  the  financial  management  on  both  sides,  that  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment was,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  more  successful.  Extraor- 
dinary taxes  were  levied  and  enormous  loans  raised.  Supplies  of  men 
were  obtained  for  both  armies  by  conscription.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  war  the  North  had  a  million  men  in  her  military  and  naval  service, 
the  South  450,000.  Though  Confederate  cruisers  did  great  damage  to 
American  commerce,  the  naval  operations  of  the  war  were  mostly  not 
oceanic,  but  confined  to  the  assistance  of  land  forces  by  expeditions  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  Gulf  and  on  the  rivers,  and  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  blockade  of  Southern  ports.  In  the  first  year  of  the  war  the 
leading  land  operations  of  the  war  were  those  in  attack  and  defense  of 
Washington,  the  chief  battle  being  that  of  Bull  Run.  In  1862,  in 
the  West,  Buell,  Pope  and  Grant  cleared  the  upper  Mississippi,  the 
lower  Cumberland  and  Tennessee,  with  battles  at  Shiloh  and  Corinth, 
while  Farragut  took  New  Orleans.  In  the  East,  Lee  defeated  McClellan 
in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  and  Pope  and  McClellan  at  Manassas, 
fought  McClellan  at  Antietam,  and  defeated  Burnside  at  Fredericksburg. 
In  1863  Lee,  having  defeated  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville,  invaded  Penn- 
sylvania, where  he  was  defeated  at  Gettysburg,  the  most  important 
decisive  battle  of  the  war.  Meantime  Grant  had  taken  Vicksburg  and 
opened  the  Mississippi,  and  the  western  armies  were  concentrated  upon 
the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  central  highlands  which  com- 
manded the  heart  of  the  Confederate  territory.  Here  Rosecrans  had 
defeated  Bragg  at  Murfreesboro',  but  had  been  defeated  at  Chickamauga. 
Grant  took  his  place.  Grant  and  Sherman  were  henceforth  the  leading 
figures  of  the  war  on  the  Federal  side.  In  1864  Grant,  in  a  series  of  severe 
battles,  forced  Lee  back  upon  Richmond  and  began  the  siege  of  Peters- 
burg, while  Sherman,  starting  from  the  central  highlands,  forced  back 
Johnston  and  Hood  and  effected  his  famous  and  destructive  "  march  to 
the  sea  "  through  Georgia.  Sherman  then  marched  northward  toward 
Grant,  who  had  finally  succeeded  in  reducing  Lee  to  extremities. 
April  9,  1865,  Lee  surrendered  to  Grant  at  Appomatox.  Johnston  sur- 
rendered, and  the  war  ended,  having  cost  the  nation  the  lives  of  prob- 
ably 300,000  men,  and  money  losses  of  perhaps  $8,000,000,000.  The 
great  results  of  these  efforts  were  the  destruction  of  slavery  and  of  that 
extreme  States-rights  view  of  the  Constitution  which  permitted  seces- 


152  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

siori.  In  many  respects  the  most  gigantic  conflict  of  modern  times, 
the  war  had  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  national  idea  and  the  consoli- 
dation of  the  Union.  That  the  great  armies  returned  to  civil  life  so 
quietly  and  with  so  little  difficulty  was  not  the  least  of  its  marvels. 
The  Civil  War  cost  $8, 000,000,000.  The  number  of  men  killed  was  six 
hundred  thousand — besides  which  over  one  million  were  disabled.  At 
Gettysburg  eighty -two  per  cent,  of  the  First  Minnesota  Regiment  were 
lost  ;  the  First  Texas  at  Antietam  lost  eighty -three  per  cent.  At  Gettys- 
burg Captain  Tuttle's  company  (Twenty-sixth  North  Carolina)  went 
into  action  with  three  officers  and  eighty-four  men.  All  of  the  officers 
and  eighty- three  of  the  men  were  killed  or  wounded. 

Claiborne  or  Clayborne,  William  (1589-1676),  of  Virginia  and 
Maryland,  colonizer.  In  1631,  under  a  license  from  Charles  I.,  he 
established  a  trading-post  on  Kent  Island  in  Chesapeake  Bay.  His 
claim  to  this  involved  Virginia  and  Maryland,  as  well  as  himself,  in 
fierce  disputes.  Lord  Baltimore  expelled  him  in  1635,  but  in  1645  he, 
in  co-operation  with  Captain  Richard  Ingle,  overthrew  the  Roman 
Catholic  government.  In  the  following  year  Calvert  was  reinstated, 
but  in  1651  Claiborne,  as  a  commissioner  of  Parliament,  reduced  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland  to  submission. 

Clarendon,  Colony  of,  a  colony  established  in  what  is  now  North 
Carolina  by  a  party  of  adventurers  from  Barbadoes  in  1664.  They  pur- 
chased lands  from  the  Indians,  and  in  1665  obtained  grants  from  the 
lords  proprietors.  John  Yeamans,  of  Barbadoes,  was  knighted  and 
made  governor  over  territory  extending  as  far  south  as  Florida. 

Clark,  Charles  E.,  born  at  Bradford,  Vt.,  August  10,  1843,  entered 
the  Naval  Academy  i860,  promoted  to  ensign  1863  and  given  command 
of  the  sloop  "  Ossipee."  He  was  in  the  engagements  at  Mobile  Bay, 
August  5,  1864,  and  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Morgan,  August  23, 
1864.  His  promotions  thereafter  were:  lieut. -commander,  1868; 
commander,  1881  ;  captain,  June,  1896.  In  March,  1898,  he  was 
given  command  of  the  great  battleship  "Oregon,"  which  he  brought 
around  from  San  Francisco  to  Key  West,  a  distance  of  14,000  miles,  in 
the  remarkably  brief  time  of  75  days.  He  commanded  the  "  Oregon  " 
in  the  engagement  with  Cervera's  fleet,  July  3,  1898. 

Clark,  George  Rogers  (1752-1818),  soldier,  went  from  Virginia 
to  Kentucky  in  1775,  where  he  became  the  leader  against  the  hostile 
Indians  and  British,  and  did  more  than  any  other  to  secure  the  North- 
west to  the  Republic.  Among  his  more  important  enterprises  were  the 
defense  of  Harrodsburg,  the  capture  of  Kaskaskia  and  Vinceunes  by  a 


AMERICAN  HlSTOKA.  153 

famous  expedition  in  1778,  the  relief  of  Cahokia,  the  invasion  of  the 
Shawnee  country  and  the  defeat  of  the  Miamis. 

Clark,  William  (1770-1838),  of  Missouri,  soldier.  In  1804,  by  ap- 
pointment of  Jefferson,  he  joined  Captain  Meriwether  Lewis  in  the 
famous  expedition  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  ;  was  Governor 
of  Missouri  Territory  from  1813  to  1821  and  from  1822  till  his  death, 
superintendent  of  Indian  affairs  at  St.  Louis. 

Clarke,  James  Freeman  (1810-1888),  of  Massachusetts,  clergy- 
man and  author.  In  1841  he  founded  in  Boston  the  (Unitarian)  Church 
of  the  Disciples,  of  which  he  was  pastor  for  forty-five  years.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  anti-slavery  cause. 

Clarke,  ^ohn  (1609-1676),  a  physician,  came  to  Rhode  Island  and 
settled  at  Aquidneck,  1638,  in  company  with  other  exiles  from  the  parent 
colony  of  Massachusetts.  His  coadjutors  were  William  Coddington 
and  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  who  founded  a  colony  on  an  island  of  Rhode 
Island  given  them  by  Miantonomoh,  sachem  of  the  Narragansetts.  A 
settlement  was  founded  at  Portsmouth,  and  the  little  band  established  a 
theocracy,  with  Coddington  as  judge,  with  the  intention  of  conducting 
their  government  upon  the  model  of  ancient  Israel.  It  is  to  John  Clarke 
the  credit  is  given  of  being  the  true  father  of  the  Baptist  denomination 
in  America.  The  theocratic  form  of  government  soon  proved  a  failure, 
and  in  1641  a  democracy  of  the  whole  people  succeeded.  To  secure 
their  political  existence,  the  colony  sent  Roger  Williams  to  England  to 
obtain  a  royal  charter,  under  which  there  was  a  long  period  of  prosperity. 
Clarke  was  deputy -governor  from  1669  until  1671. 

Clay,  Cassius  M.,  born  in  1810,  of  Kentucky,  politician.  In  1832 
he  became  an  earnest  Abolitionist.  In  1845  ne  established  the  True 
American,  an  anti-slavery  paper,  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  was  obliged 
to  fortify  the  publication  office  against  violence.  He  was  a  captain  in 
the  Mexican  War.  He  supported  General  Taylor  for  the  Presidency  in 
1848,  Fremont  in  1856,  and  Lincoln  in  i860.  He  was  sent  as  minister 
to  Russia  in  1861,  and  again  in  1863.  His  life  was  embittered  by  an  un- 
fortunate marriage  with  a  young  girl  from  whom  he  soon  separated  and 
divorced. 

Clay,  ileiiry  (April  12,  1777— June  29,  1852),  statesman,  orator  and 
political  leader,  was  born  in  the  "  Slashes,"  Va.  He  studied  law,  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty  removed  to  Kentucky.  Having  served  in  the 
Legislature,  he  was  at  a  very  early  age  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and 
represented  Kentucky  at  Washington  from  1806  to  1807.  He  was  soon 
attached  to  the  cause  of  internal  improvements,  with  which  his  name 


154  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

became  identified.  In  rapid  succession  came  his  term  as  Speaker  of 
the  Kentucky  Assembly,  as  U.  S.  Senator  again  1809-11  and  as  member 
of  the  House,  which  he  entered  in  181 1.  Although  a  newcomer,  he 
was  immediately  chosen  Speaker,  and  served  until  his  resignation  in 
1814.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  war  party  which  forced  Madison  into  the 
contest  with  Great  Britain.  His  life  in  Congress  was  interrupted  in 
1 814,  as  he  had  been  chosen  one  of  the  envoys  to  treat  for  the  peace 
finally  negotiated  at  Ghent  in  December,  1814.  In  1815  he  was  again 
in  the  House  and  served  continuously  as  its  Speaker  until  182 1. 
During  this  period  he  was  a  powerful  advocate  of  the  Spanish-American 
States  in  insurrection,  and  was  instrumental  in  effecting  the  Missouri 
Compromise  (which  see) .  After  a  brief  absence  from  Congress  he  was 
again  Speaker  of  the  House  in  1823-25.  He  was  in  1824  a  candidate 
for  the  Presidency,  and  received  thirty-seven  electoral  votes.  In  the 
exciting  contest  in  the  House  of  Representatives  Adams  was  finally 
chosen  President,  and  his  appointment  of  Clay  as  Secretary  of  State 
caused  not  unnaturally  the  groundless  charge  of  a  "  bargain  ' '  between 
the  two.  Clay  had  ardently  supported  the  tariff  of  1824,  and  denomi- 
nated the  protective  the  "  American  System."  While  he  was  Secretary 
the  principal  diplomatic  matter  which  arose  was  the  Panama  Congress. 
He  retired  from  office  in  1829,  but  in  1831  he  entered  the  Senate  from 
Kentucky.  For  twenty  years  he  was  the  natural  leader  of  the  great 
party  known  first  as  the  National  Republican,  but  soon  as  the  Whig. 
He  was  nominated  as  its  candidate  for  President  in  December,  1831, 
but  was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  Jackson.  He  was  active  in  the 
bank  controversy  and  other  questions  of  the  time,  and  brought  about 
the  tariff  compromise  of  1833,  and  the  settlement  with  France  in  1835. 
In  1840  he  failed  to  receive  the  Whig  nomination,  and  in  1843  he  retired 
from  the  Senate.  The  Whig  National  Convention  of  1844  nominated 
him  by  acclamation,  but  Clay's  trimming  "  Alabama  Letter  "  turned 
the  scale  in  favor  of  Polk.  He  re-entered  the  Senate  in  1849,  an(I  took 
the  foremost  part  in  the  great  compromise  bill  of  1850.  Although  by 
far  the  most  popular  man  in  the  party,  he  never  again  received  the 
nomination  for  President.  In  comparison  with  his  great  colleagues  he 
shone  chiefly  as  a  brilliant  debater,  "  magnetic  "  platform  orator  and 
contriver  of  compromise  measures,  intended  to  preserve  the  Union. 

Clayton,  John  M.  (1796-1856),  of  Delaware,  of  which  he  was  Chief 
Justice  from  1837  to  1840,  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1829  to  1835,  from 
1845  to  1849,  an<i  from  1851  till  his  death.  In  1849  he  became  Secretary 
of  State  under  President  Taylor,  in  which  office  he  was  continued  by 
President  Fillmore  till  July,  1850.  As  such  he  negotiated  the  celebrated 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  with  Great  Britain. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  155 

Clayton,  Powell,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1833.  In  1861  he 
entered  the  Union  army  and  became  brigadier-general  in  1864.  After 
the  war  he  became  Governor  of  Arkansas,  and  represented  it  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  from  1871  to  1877.  Became  minister  to  Mexico,  May, 
1897. 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  a  treaty  concluded  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  in  1850,  the  negotiators  being  Secretary 
John  M.  Clayton  and  Sir  Henry  Bulwer.  It  related  to  establishing 
communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  by  means  of  a 
ship  canal  across  Nicaragua.  It  forbade  the  exclusive  control  of  com- 
munication by  either  party.  The  claim  was  set  up  that  Great  Britain 
abrogated  the  treaty  by  establishing  a  colony  in  British  Honduras,  con- 
trary to  the  provisions  of  that  convention.  A  further  claim  was  made 
that  the  treaty  was  abrogated  in  1888  by  Great  Britain  signing  the 
Constantinople  convention,  in  which  the  United  States  was  not  invited 
to  participate.  This  convention  provided  for  the  control  of  the  Suez  Canal 
by  European  powers,  in  which  canal  Great  Britain  holds  the  majority 
of  stock.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  also  concerned  a  canal  to  be  imme- 
diately constructed,  and  as  the  scheme  contemplated  in  the  treaty  was 
abandoned,  it  has  been  maintained  that  the  treaty  lost  effect  by  that 
fact.  This  contention,  however,  was  disputed  by  the  McKinley  ad- 
ministration, which  through  the  Hay-Pauncefote  agreement  (February 
4,  1900)  vitalized  the  treaty  by  providing  for  its  abrogation,  upon  condi- 
tion that  the  United  States  should  build  and  own  the  Nicaragua  Canal, 
but  should  maintain  it  as  an  open  highway,  during  peace  and  war,  and 
that  the  United  States  should  not  fortify  the  canal  or  its  approaches. 
A  violent  opposition  to  this  agreement  was  developed,  which  leaves  the 
matter  of  construction  pending  at  this  writing  (February  20,  1900). 

Clearing  House.  The  system  was  first  introduced  into  the  United 
States  by  the  banks  of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1853.  During  the  Civil 
War  the  clearing  houses  proved  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  government 
in  establishing  credit  and  securing  loans.  The  panics  of  1873  and  of 
May,  1884,  were  checked  only  through  the  same  instrumentality,  which 
similarly  operated  in  1893. 

Cleaveland,  Moses  (1754-1806),  of  Connecticut,  pioneer,  was  a 
promoter  of  the  purchase  from  Connecticut  of  the  so-called  Western 
Reserve,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  City  of  Cleveland. 

Cleburne,  Patrick  R.  (1828-1864),  a  descendant  of  William  Clai- 
borne {q.  v.);  came  to  the  United  States  and  joined  the  Confederates  in 
the  Civil  War.     He  commanded  a  corps  at  Franklin  when  he  was  killed. 


156  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

Clemens,  Samuel  t,.,  see  appendix,  page  479. 

Cleveland,  Frances  (Folsom),  was  born  in  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  in 
1864,  and  was  married  to  President  Cleveland  June  2,  1S86.  Except 
Mrs.  Madison  she  is  the  youngest  person  who  has  been  mistress  of  the 
White  House.  She  performed  the  duties  and  dispensed  the  courtesies 
and  hospitalities  of  her  high  position  with  rare  tact,  sweetness  and 
grace. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  the  twenty-second  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Caldwell,  N.  J.,  in  1837.  He  received  a  fair  educa- 
tion, studied  law,  and  entered  upon  its  practice  at  Buffalo.  He  served 
as  sheriff,  but  his  great  opportunity  did  not  come  until  1881,  when  a 
reform  movement  made  him  the  mayor  of  Buffalo.  His  efficient  adminis- 
tration attracted  favorable  notice,  and  in  the  summer  of  1882  he  received 
the  Democratic  nomination  for  Governor  of  New  York.  Republican  de- 
moralization contributed  to  his  election  by  the  enormous  majority  of 
192,000.  The  prestige  of  this  achievement  was  followed  by  such  a  con- 
duct of  State  affairs  that  he  received  in  1884  the  Democratic  nomination 
for  President.  The  election  turned  on  the  result  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  where  Cleveland  received  about  1,000  majority  over  Blaine.  The 
new  President  became  known  as  a  supporter  of  civil  service  reform, 
hard  money,  and  especially  of  tariff  reform,  which  he  advocated  in  his 
celebrated  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1887.  He  was  again  the 
party  candidate  in  1888,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Republican,  Harrison, 
in  a  campaign  which  had  the  tariff  as  its  leading  feature.  After  retiring 
from  office  in  1889  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law,  and  settled  in  New 
York  City.  As  the  new  election  approached,  his  candidacy  was  again 
suggested,  and  he  received  in  1892  for  the  third  time  the  party  nomi- 
nation. His  former  competitor  was  again  in  the  field,  and  was  this 
time  decisively  beaten.  President  Cleveland  commenced  his  second 
term  in  March,  1893,  and  the  chief  features  of  his  administration  were 
the  repeal  of  the  Silver  Purchase  Act,  or  Sherman  Act,  the  introduction 
of  a  bill  for  the  reduction  of  the  tariff,  and  the  Hawaiian  imbroglio.  At 
the  close  of  his  term  of  office  he  retired  to  Princeton,  New  Jersey, 
where  he  has  since  made  his  home. 

Clews,  Henry,  a  native  of  England,  came  to  New  York  and  ac- 
cepted a  clerkship  on  a  salary  of  $200  a  year.  Became  member  of  the 
firm  of  Stout,  Clews  and  Mason,  1858,  and  developed  so  much  financial 
ability  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  invited  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  become  financial  agent  to  sell  the  govern- 
ment issues  of  bonds.  The  firm  of  Henry  Clews  &  Co.  was  organized 
1S77,  and  has  been  one  of  the  leading  financial  concerns  of  America. 
Mr.  Clews  is  a  man  of  very  great  wealth,  and  he  has  used  much  of  it 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  157 

for  charitable  purposes.     He  is  author  of  "  Twenty-eight  Years  in  Wall 
Street." 

Clifford,  Nathan  (1803-1881),  of  Maine,  jurist,  was  Speaker  of  the 
Maine  House  of  Representatives  in  1833  and  1834  ;  Attorney-General 
of  Maine  from  1834  to  1838,  and  member  of  Congress  from  1839  to  1^43- 
From  1846  to  1848  he  was  Attorney-General  in  President  Polk's  Cabi- 
net. Jn  1858  he  was  appointed  by  President  Buchanan  a  Justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  In  1S77  he  was  president  of  the  Electoral  Com- 
mission. 

Clinton,  De  Witt  (1769-1828),  was  a  nephew  of  George  Clinton, 
and  after  graduating  at  Columbia  he  acted  as  secretary  to  his  uncle. 
He  was  a  Republican  member  of  the  New  York  Legislature  and  entered 
the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1802,  but  left  that  body  soon  to  become  mayor  of 
New  York  City.  In  this  office  he  served  until  1807,  and  again  in  1809- 
10  and  181  £-15.  He  was  also  State  Senator,  Lieutenant-Governor 
and  a  member  of  the  council  of  appointment.  In  18 12  he  was  the  can- 
didate of  the  Federalists  and  of  the  New  York  Democrats  for  President, 
receiving  eighty-nine  electoral  votes.  Clinton  was  ardently  devoted  to 
the  policy  of  internal  improvements,  and  especially  to  the  development 
of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  Canals.  In  1817-23  and  1825-28  he  was 
Governor  of  New  York. 

Clinton,  George  (1739-1812),  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
was  a  soldier  in  the  French  and  Indian  War  and  a  member  of  the  New 
York  Assembly  ;  in  the  first  part  of  the  Revolution  he  was  for  a  short 
time  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  then  served  in  the  field. 
As  a  brigadier-general  he  defended  unsuccessfully  the  Highland  forts 
against  the  British  in  1777.  For  the  long  period  of  1 777-1 795  he  was 
Governor  of  the  State,  and  threw  his  great  influence  against  the  ratifi- 
cation of  the  Federal  Constitution.  Thereafter  he  was  an  Anti-Feder- 
alist and  Republican  leader.  He  received  a  few  votes  for  Vice-President 
in  1789,  fifty  votes  for  Vice-President  in  1792  and  several  in  1796.  He 
was  again  Governor  in  1801-04,  and  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1804, 
serving  as  such,  under  Jefferson  and  Madison,  until  his  death.  In  181 1 
he  gave  the  casting  vote  against  the  U.  S.  Bank. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry  (1738-1795),  British  soldier,  came  to  Boston  as 
major-general  in  1775  witji  Howe  and  Burgoyne.  In  1778  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces.  He  evacuated  Phila- 
delphia in  June,  and  on  his  retreat  thence  to  New  York  fought  with 
Washington  the  indecisive  battle  of  Monmouth.  In  May,  1778,  he 
captured  Charleston  and  the  whole  army  under  Lincoln.     During  the 


158  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

following  summer  he  planned  with  Arnold  the  treasonable  surrender 
of  West  Point.  He  failed  to  relieve  Cornwallis  in  October,  1781,  and 
returned  to  England  in  1782. 

Clinton,  James  (1736-1812),  of  New  York,  soldier,  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War  captured  a  French  sloop-of-war  on  Lake 
Ontario.  As  colonel  of  a  New  York  regiment  he  was  with  Montgomery 
at  Quebec  in  1775.  As  brigadier-general  he  commanded  at  Fort  Clin- 
ton when  it  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1777,  and  was  present  at  York- 
town.  He  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  convention  that  adopted 
the  Federal  Constitution. 

Clinton  Bridge  Case,  an  important  litigation  in  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  1870,  which  established  the  doctrine  by  which  railroad 
bridges  may  be  said  to  have  gained  clear  recognition  of  their  rights  of 
way  in  preference  to  the  navigable  waters  crossed  by  them,  through 
the  power  of  Congress  to  regulate  interstate  commerce. 

Cloture,  from  the  French,  meaning  closure.  The  word  is  used  to 
describe  the  power  of  the  speaker  of  a  deliberative  body,  like  the  British 
Parliament  and  the  American  Congress,  to  close  debate  when  so  author- 
ized by  a  motion  duly  adopted.     It  was  first  used  in  Parliament,  1882. 

Clymer,  George  (1739-1813),  of  Pennsylvania,  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration (although  not  present  at  its  adoption).  In  1775  he  became  conti- 
nental treasurer,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1776,  1777  and 
1780.  In  1778  he,  with  John  Nixon,  organized  the  Bank  of  North 
America.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal 
Constitution,  and  elected  to  the  first  Congress  held  under  its  pro- 
visions. 

Coal.  The  first  organized  effort  to  mine  anthracite  coal  was  in  1793 
on  the  Mammoth  bed  at  Summit  Hill,  near  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsyl- 
vania, but  regular  shipments  did  not  begin  until  1820.  It  was  not 
until  1825  that  it  was  in  general  use  for  the  generation  of  steam,  and 
not  until  1839  that  it  was  employed  as  an  exclusive  fuel  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  pig  iron.  The  industry  in  bituminous  coal  and  coke  was  begun 
in  Connellsville,  Pa.,  in  1841,  by  McCormick  and  Campbell.  Regular 
manufacture  commenced  in  that  district  in  1861.  The  coal -mining  in- 
dustry is  now  more  or  less  prosperous  in  a  very  large  number  of  the 
States  and  Territories,  though  Pennsylvania  still  holds  the  lead,  and 
the  total  annual  output  is  nearly  40,000,000  tons. 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  The  establishment  of  this  important 
bureau  was  first  contemplated  in  1807.     President  Jefferson  suggested  it 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  159 

in  his  message  to  Congress  of  that  year.  Congress  appropriated  $50,- 
000  for  the  survey.  Nothing  practical  was  accomplished  until  181 1. 
Then  F.  R.  Hassler,  an  Englishman,  was  made  chief  of  the  survey  and 
commenced  operations  near  New  York.  Since  then  its  work  has  pro- 
gressed constantly,  under  Alexander  Dallas  Bache  and  other  eminent 
engineers  and  organizers.  It  has  been  a  bureau  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment. 

Cobb,  Howell  (1815-1868),  of  Georgia,  statesman,  entered  Congress 
as  a  Democrat  in  1843,  and  served  till  1853  and  again  1855  ;  was  elected 
Speaker  in  1849  ;  was  a  warm  defender  of  the  Union,  but  also  a  strong 
advocate  of  State  rights  and  of  the  compromise  measures  of  1850  ;  was 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia  by  the  Union  party  in  1851.  In  185711c 
became  President  Buchanan's  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  In  i860  he 
urged  forward  the  secession  movement,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  provi- 
sional Congress  which  adopted  the  Confederate  Constitution. 

Cochrane,  Sir  Alexander  F.  I.  (1758-1832),  British  admiral, 
commanded  the  British  North  American  fleet  in  1812,  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  Washington  in  1814,  and  in  the  attack  on  New  Orleans. 

Cockburn,  Sir  George  (1772-1853),  British  admiral.  In  1813  ex- 
peditions from  his  squadron  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  United  States 
from  Delaware  to  Georgia.  In  1814  under  Admiral  Cochrane  and  in 
conjunction  with  General  Ross  he  captured  Washington,  burning  the 
Capitol  and  other  public  buildings,  and  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  take 
Baltimore.     In  18 15  he  conveyed  Napoleon  to  St.  Helena. 

Cockran,  W.  Bourke,  see  appendix,  page  480. 

Cockrell,  Francis  M.,  born  in  1834,  of  Missouri,  Senator,  entered 
the  Confederate  army,  in  which  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
He  became  U.  S.  Senator  in  1875,  in  which  position  he  still  (1900)  con- 
tinues. 

Cody,  William  F.,  born  in  1845,  of  Kansas,  served  with  distinction 
as  a  scout  through  several  Indian  wars,  and  afterward  in  several  im- 
portant expeditions  ;  widely  known  as  "  Buffalo  Bill."  His  home  is  in 
North  Platte,  Neb. 

Ccenr  d' Alene,  an  Indian  tribe  in  Idaho  and  Washington  Territories. 
In  1858  a  part  of  the  tribe  joined  in  an  attack  on  Colonel  Steptoe.  They 
were  subsequently  defeated  by  Colonel  Wright  and  became  peaceful. 
In  1867  a  reservation  was  set  apart  for  those  in  Idaho,  and  in  1872  a  band 
in  Paradise  Valley  was  removed  to  land  between  the  Okinokane  and 
Columbia  Rivers. 

Coffee,  John  (1772-1834),  of  Tennessee,    soldier.     In  the  War  of 


160  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

1812  he  became  brigadier-general,  fought  and  won  the  battle  of  Tallus 
hatchie  and  commanded  Jackson's  left  wing  at  New  Orleans. 

Coins.  The  first  coins  made  in  the  United  States  were  struck  at  No, 
29  North  7th  Street,  Philadelphia. 

Coinage  JVaws.  Itythe  law  of  April  2,  1792,  any  person  could  have 
gold  or  silver  coined  at  the  mint  into  lawful  money,  receiving  therefor 
coins  of  the  same  species  of  bullion,  weight  for  weight  of  the  pure  metal 
contained  therein.  The  standard  for  gold  was  eleven  parts  pure  to  one 
alloy  ;  for  silver,  1485  parts  pure  to  179  alloy.  The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver 
was  fifteen  to  one,  and  both  coins  were  legal  tender.  By  the  law  of 
March  3,  1795,  the  Treasurer  retained  twenty-four  cents  per  ounce  for 
silver  below  the  standard,  four  cents  for  gold.  By  the  law  of  April  21, 
1800,  there  was  retained  for  deposits  of  gold  and  silver  below  the  standard 
a  sum  sufficient  for  the  expense  of  refinement.  By  the  law  of  May  8, 
1828,  a  sum  was  retained  from  silver  bullion  requiring  the  test,  for  materi- 
als and  wastage.  By  the  law  of  June  28,  1834,  a  deduction  of  one-half 
per  cent,  was  to  be  made  from  all  standard  gold  and  silver  deposited  for 
coinage,  if  paid  for  in  coin  within  five  days  from  deposit.  By  the  law 
of  January  18,  1837,  the  standard  gold  and  silver  coin  was  made  nine- 
tenths  pure,  one-tenth  alloy  and  legal  tender  for  any  sum.  By  the  law 
of  February  21,  1853,  the  weight  of  the  half-dollar  was  reduced  from 
206 )£  to  192  grains  and  lesser  silver  coins  in  the  same  proportion  ;  legal 
tender  to  five  dollars.  No  private  deposits  for  coinage  in  these  coins 
were  received  and  charges  of  one-half  per  cent,  were  made  for  refining. 
By  the  law  of  February  12,  1873,  tne  weight  of  the  trade  dollar  was  to 
be  420  grains,  of  the  half-dollar  193  grains  ;  legal  tender  to  five  dollars. 
Silver  bullion  could  be  deposited  for  coinage  into  trade  dollars  only  ; 
gold  for  coinage  for  the  benefit  of  the  depositor.  The  directors  of  the 
mint  were  to  buy  silver  for  coins  less  than  one  dollar.  One-fifth  of  one 
per  cent,  was  charged  for  converting  standard  gold  bullion  into  coin, 
and  silver  into  trade  dollars.  Silver  coins,  except  trade  dollars, 
were  to  be  exchanged  at  par  for  gold  coins  in  sums  not  exceeding  $100. 
The  charges  on  gold  were  removed  in  1875.  By  the  law  of  July  22, 
1877,  the  trade  dollar  ceased  to  be  a  legal  tender.  By  the  law  of 
February  28,  1878,  silver  dollars  of  412^  grains  were  made  legal  tender 
for  all  debt,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  was  authorize^  to  pur- 
chase at  market  value,  and  coin,  not  less  than  $2,000,000  worth  of  silver 
bullion  per  month  and  not  more  than  14,000,000  worth  per  month.  By 
the  law  of  June  9,  1879,  silver  coins  less  than  one  dollar  were  made 
legal  tender  to  ten  dollars.  By  the  law  of  July  14, 1890,  the  regulations 
of  1878  in  regard  to  the  purchase  and  coinage  of  silver  were  repealed 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  161 

and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  was  authorized  to  purchase  4,500,000 
ounces  of  silver  bullion  per  month,  issuing  in  payment  United  States 
notes,  to  be  a  legal  tender  ;  and  to  make  a  sufficient  monthly  coinage 
for  the  redemption  of  these  notes.  In  1893  the  silver-purchase  clauses 
of  this  act  were  repealed. 

Cold  Harbor,  Va. ,  battles  between  the  Federals  and  Confederates 
under  Grant  and  Lee,  fought  irregularly  during  twelve  days,  June  1-12, 
1864,  while  Grant  was  conducting  his  famous  campaign  against  Rich- 
mond. Lee  held  the  vicinity  of  Cold  Harbor  with  about  58,000  men, 
having  thrown  up  hasty  fortifications.  Grant  had  120,000  troops. 
Sheridan  advanced  to  Cold  Harbor  on  the  thirty-first  of  May.  June  r 
the  Sixth  Corps  and  Smith's  troops  began  the  attack  by  endeavoring  to 
take  the  Confederate  fortifications.  The  assault  was  ineffectual,  the 
Federals  being  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  June  2  rain  prevented  battle, 
so  the  day  was  passed  on  both  sides  in  arranging  the  lines.  June  3 
Lee's  position  had  been  immensely  strengthened  by  slashes  and  rifle 
trenches.  Sheridan's  cavalry  guarded  the  crossing  of  the  Chickahom- 
iny,  and  Wilson  watched  the  Confederates'  right.  Early  in  the  morn- 
ing the  Federals  advanced  upon  the  Confederate  intrenchments. 
Hancock's  corps  forced  the  enemy  from  their  front,  and  with  Wright, 
Smith  and  Warren  made  vigorous  assaults  upon  the  impregnable  earth- 
works. Burnside  failed  to  come  to  their  aid.  Several  regiments,  how- 
ever, mounted  the  parapets  and  placed  their  banners  upon  them. 
Many  of  the  bravest  Federal  officers  lost  their  lives.  The  last  assault 
lasted  half  an  hour,  and  then  the  Federals  retired.  For  ten  days  the 
armies  lay  idle,  their  sharpshooters  picking  off  many  men.  Federal 
loss,  12,737;  Confederate,  1,700. 

Colfax,  Schuyler  (1823-1885),  of  Indiana,  Vice-President.  In 
1844  he  made  campaign  speeches  for  Clay.  In  1845  he  established  the 
St.  Joseph  Valley  Register,  which  became  a  very  influential  Whig 
journal.  He  was  secretary  of  the  national  Whig  conventions  of  1848 
and  1852,  and  was  in  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1855  to  1869.  He 
was  Speaker  of  the  House  from  1863  to  1869,  and  Vice-President  from 
1869  to  1873,  but  failed  to  obtain  a  renomination  for  the  next  term. 
He  was  charged,  probably  unjustly,  with  complicity  in  the  "  Credit 
Mobilier  "  scandal  of  1873. 

Collamer,  Jacob  (1791-1865),  of  Vermont,  was  a  Representative  in 
the  Vermont  Assembly  in  1821  and  1827.  From  1833  to  1842  and  from 
1850  to  1854  he  was  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Vermont,  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  from  1843  to  l849»  and  Posting  *ter-General  from  1849  to 
1850.  From  1854  until  his  death  he  was  a  T.J.  ;$.  Senator. 
Vol.  V.— 11 


1 62  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Colleges.  In  spite  of  the  vote  of  the  Virginia  Company  in  1619  to 
establish  a  college  there,  the  first  college  established  in  the  United 
States  was  Harvard  (1636).  The  second  was  the  College  of  William 
and  Mary  (1693),  the  third  Yale  (1701).  Other  colleges  established  be- 
fore 1789  were  the  following  :  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton), 
opened  in  1746,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1753,  King's  College 
(now  Columbia)  in  1754,  Rhode  Island  College  (now  Brown  University) 
in  1765,  Dartmouth  in  1770,  Rutgers  in  1770,  Dickinson  in  1783,  the 
College  of  Charleston  in  1785. 

Colleton,  James,  of  Barbadoes,  was  appointed  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1686.  His  authority  was  resisted  by  the  Legislature  which, 
after  the  English  revolution,  impeached,  disfranchised  and  banished 
him  (1690). 

Colombia.  The  independence  of  Colombia  was  recognized  by  the 
United  States  in  March,  1822.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the  undivided  republic  of  Colombia 
October  3,  1824.  In  1831  the  republic  was  divided  into  New  Granada, 
Venezuela  and  Ecuador.  New  Granada  concluded  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  United  States  in  1846.  By  this  treaty  the  United  States 
guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  compensation 
for  specified  commercial  advantages,  and  on  these  grounds  the  United 
States  has  claimed  the  right  to  be  heard  in  Panama  Canal  affairs.  A 
consular  convention  was  concluded  in  1850,  and  claims  conventions  fa- 
vorable to  the  United  States  in  1857  and  1861. 

Colonial  System.  Until  the  close  of  the  last  century  it  was  the 
invariable  practice  of  European  States  to  manage  their  colonies  with  a 
view* almost  solely  to  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country.  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, France,  the  Netherlands  and  England,  though  they  differed  other- 
wise in  their  colonial  systems,  agreed  in  this.  Yet  on  the  whole  the 
disregard  of  colonial  interests  which  the  English  Government  manifested 
was  less  extreme  than  that  of  other  governments.  Adam  Smith,  by  his 
"  Wealth  of  Nations,"  published  in  1776,  taught  governments  the  expe- 
diency of  a  more  liberal  system. 

Colonisation  Society,  The  National.  An  organization  formed 
in  1816,  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  immediately  reorganized  at  Washing- 
ton, its  principal  object  being  to  encourage  the  emancipation  of  slaves 
by  obtaining  for  them  a  place  without  the  United  States  to  which  they 
might  emigrate.  The  scheme  was  also  intended  to  relieve  the  South  of 
the  free  black  population  with  which  it  was  burdened.  Branches  of  the 
society  were  soon  established  in  almost  every  State.     Free  negroes  were 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  163 

first  sent  to  Sierra  Leone,  later  for  a  short  time  to  Sherbrooke  Island,  and 
finally  in  182 1  a  permanent  location  was  purchased  at  Cape  Mesurado. 
In  1847  this  colony  declared  itself  an  independent  republic  under  the 
name  of  Liberia.  The  society  engaged  the  attention  of  many  anti- 
slavery  advocates  until  the  rise  of  the  Abolition  party  in  1831. 

Colorado,  a  State  of  the  Union,  was  named  from  the  river  of  that 
name.  It  was  formed  in  part  from  the  Louisiana  purchase,  and  in  part 
from  the  Mexican  cession.  The  early  Spanish  gold-hunters  visited 
Colorado,  and  in  1806  Major  Pike  led  a  government  expedition  into  the 
region.  In  1843  Fremont  explored  the  northern  part.  The  discovery  of 
gold  in  1858  attracted  immigration.  Two  acts  for  the  admission  of  Col- 
orado as  a  State  were  vetoed  by  President  Johnson  in  1866  and  1867. 
August  1,  1876,  the  President  announced  the  admission  of  Colorado. 
Down  to  1892  the  State  was  Republican.  In  that  year  the  electoral 
votes  were  cast  for  Weaver,  the  Fusion  candidate.  The  population  of 
the  State  in  1880  was  199,327  ;  in  1890  it  was  412,198. 

Colt,  Samuel  (1814-1862),  of  Connecticut,  inventor.  In  1829,  while 
a  runaway  sailor  boy,  he  made  a  model  in  wood  of  his  celebrated  re- 
volver. In  1852  he  built  immense  armories  at  Hartford  for  their  manu- 
facture. 

Columbia,  S.  C,  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in  1790  under  an 
act  of  the  Legislature  which  provided  for  the  founding  of  the  city.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Federal  forces  under  General  Sherman,  February  17, 
1865.  On  the  evacuation  of  the  city  by  General  Wade  Hampton  a  large 
quantity  of  cotton  was  fiued  either  by  accident  or  design,  and  caused 
immense  damage. 

Columbia  College,  New  York  City.  Originally  called  King's  Col- 
lege and  chartered  1754.  During  the  Revolution  studies  were  suspended 
and  its  building  made  into  a  military  hospital.  In  1784  the  college  was 
reorganized  and  resumed  work  under  the  new  name.  In  1891  the. Col- 
lege of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  became  a  part  of  the  college.  In  1858 
a  law  department  was  established  and  in  1864  a  school  of  mines  with 
eight  distinct  courses  of  study.  In  1880  and  1890  the  facilities  in 
graduate  work  were  largely  increased. 

Columbia  River  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniard  Heceta  in  1775  and 
called  St.  Roque.  Afterward,  in  1792,  Captain  Gray,  of  Boston,  explored 
the  stream  and  changed  the  name  to  Columbia.  In  1805-06  Lewis  and 
Clarke,  under  orders  from  President  Jefferson,  explored  the  Columbia 
River  and  opened  up  the  northwest  region.     Questions  concerning  the 


164  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

discovery  of  the  region  had  an  important  part  in  the  discussion   of  the 
Oregon  question. 

Columbian  Institute,  founded  at  Washington  in  1819,  by  Joel 
Barlow,  sometime  American  Minister  at  Paris.  Barlow  was  aided  by 
Josiah  Meigs,  Thomas  I,aw,  Edward  Cutbush,  Judge  Cranch  and  others, 
citizens  of  Washington.  Its  purpose  was  the  advancement  of  knowledge 
by  associations  of  scientific  men,  and  the  dissemination  of  its  rudiments 
by  the  instruction  of  youth. 

Columbus,  Christopher  (about  1436-1506),  the  discoverer  of 
America,  was  born  probably  at  Genoa,  in  Italy,  about  1436.  His  early  life 
was  passed  at  sea,  interspersed  with  work  as  a  maker  of  maps  and  charts. 
About  1470  he  went  to  Lisbon,  and  engaged  in  voyages  to  Guinea  and 
probably  visited  Iceland.  He  became  acquainted  with  the  map  of 
Toscanelli  and  the  results  of  geographical  investigation,  and  planned 
the  discovery  of  a  short  route  to  China,  Japan  and  the  Indies.  As  his 
project  was  rejected  by  the  King  of  Portugal,  he  followed  the  court  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  setting  forth  his  schemes  at  Cordova,  Sala- 
manca, Malaga  and  elsewhere,  but  he  failed  to  enlist  support  until  after 
the  fall  of  Granada  in  1492.  Having  obtained  authority  from  the  sov- 
ereigns and  financial  aid,  he  sailed  with  his  fleet  of  three  caravels,  the 
"  Santa  Maria,"  "  Pinta  "  and  "  Nina,"  from  Palos  on  August  3,  1492. 
He  held  a  westerly  course,  quelled  insubordination,  and  reached  land  in 
the  Bahama  group  October  12,  1492  ;  the  island  of  the  landfall  may  have 
been  Watling's  or  Samana  Island.  He  further  discovered  Cuba  and 
Hayti,  and  arrived  home  after  severe  vicissitudes  in  March,  1493.  In 
the  following  autumn  he  sailed  with  a  larger  expedition,  and  remained 
in  the  West  Indies  until  1496.  On  his  third  voyage  in  1498,  he  reached 
the  mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  rightly  surmising  that  he 
had  found  a  continent,  though  still  fancying  himself  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Asia.  Proceeding  to  the  West  Indies  he  was  imprisoned  by  enemies 
and  sent  in  chains  to  Spain,  but  was  soon  released.  In  his  fourth  voy- 
age* x5°2  to  1504,  he  explored  the  coast  of  Central  America.  He  sur- 
vived his  patron  Isabella  a  short  time,  dying  at  Valladolid,  in  Spain, 
May  20,  1506.  There  is  a  well-known  biography  by  Irving,  and  recent 
lives  by  Harrisse  and  Winsor,  the  last  being  distinctly  unfavorable. 

Comanche  Indians,  originally  a  roving  tribe,  early  engaged  in 
disastrous  wars  with  the  Spanish.  They  have  always  been  dangerous 
and  troublesome.  They  were  at  one  time  on  a  Texas  reservation,  but 
on  being  expelled  became  bitter  enemies  of  the  State.  The  govern- 
ment later  collected  a  portion  on  lands  in  the  western  part  of  Indian 


AMERICAN  HISTORY,  165 

Territory.     A  part  of  these,  the  Quanhado,  refused  to  settle  down  until 
defeated  by  Colonel  McKenzie  at  McClellan's  Creek  in  1872. 

Comity  of  Nations  is  a  term  used  to  designate  that  international 
legal  courtesy  by  which  the  laws  and  institutions  of  one  country  are 
recognized  and  given  effect  to  by  those  of  another. 

Commerce.  From  their  first  foundation,  the  colonies  of  New  Neth- 
erland  and  New  England  were  engaged  to  an  important  extent  in 
commerce,  while  the  chartered  colonizing  companies,  like  the  Virginia 
Company,  were  largely  intended  for  that  pursuit.  The  Navigation 
Acts  of  1646,  1651,  1660  and  1663  aimed  to  restrict  colonial  commerce 
for  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country  ;  and  similar  restrictions  were, 
beginning  in  1673,  laid  on  intercolonial  commerce.  But  all  these  acts 
were  constantly  evaded.  The  efforts  finally  made  to  enforce  them  more 
strictly  were  among  the  chief  causes  of  the  Revolution.  By  1789  the 
tonnage  of  American  vessels  engaged  in  foreign  trade  was  about  325,000 
tons,  of  that  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  125,000  more,  while  that  of 
foreign  vessels  trading  with  the  United  States  was  about  250,000,  chiefly 
British.  At  that  time  two-thirds  of  the  imports  were  from  England,  and 
half  the  exports  went  to  that  country.  Trade  with  the  East  Indies  was 
then  just  beginning.  New  England  and  New  York  were  the  chief  com- 
mercial regions  at  that  time.  From  that  date  American  commerce  has 
been  too  various  to  summarize. 

Committees,  It  is  the  universal  custom  of  American  legislative 
bodies  to  transact  their  business  through  standing  committees,  each  of 
which  is  charged  with  a  special  branch  of  the  business  of  the  body. 
This  is  not  the  present  English  custom,  but  is  nevertheless  not  an 
American  invention.  The  House  of  Commons  developed  the  rudiments 
of  such  a  system  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  and  it  was  in  full  operation 
during  the  Commonwealth.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries  Virginia,  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  North  Carolina  adopted  this  system  from 
England,  with  nearly  the  same  names  of  committees  as  those  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (in  which  this  system  has  since  become  obsolete  be- 
cause of  cabinet  government).  Therefore  it  was  readily  adopted  as  the 
mode  of  transacting  business  by  the  Continental  Congress,  though  it  was 
not  used  in  the  legislatures  of  the  New  England  colonies.  In  the  Con- 
gresses under  the  Constitution,  beginning  in  1789,  but  few  committees 
were  at  first  used,  but  the  number  gradually  increased.  By  Speaker 
Clay's  time  the  system  of  standing  committees  had  reached  full  devel- 
opment. The  Senate  had  followed,  a  little  more  slowly.  Committees 
of  the  Senate  have  always  been  appointed  by  the  Senate.     In  the  House 


1 66  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

a  similar  practice  was  occasionally  followed  at  first,  but  soon  their  ap- 
pointment was  given  to  the  Speaker,  which  is  the  foundation  of  his 
power  in  the  U.  S.  Government. 

Committees  of  Correspondence.  Committees  of  this  name  had 
existed  in  some  of  the  colonial  legislatures  much  before  the  Revolution, 
e.  g.,  in  Pennsylvania  from  1744  on.  Their  object  was  to  keep  up  cor- 
respondence with  the  agents  of  the  colonies  in  England.  But  this  gave 
only  a  name  to  the  famous  Revolutionary  committees.  In  a  Boston 
town  meeting  of  November,  1772,  Samuel  Adams  moved  that  a  "  Com- 
mittee of  Correspondence  "  be  appointed  to  state  the  rights  of  the  colo- 
nists, and  correspond  with  the  other  provinces  and  towns  of  New 
England.  Their  proceedings  were  to  be  secret.  The  system  resulted 
in  a  union  of  the  colonies,  and  fostered  the  germs  of  revolution.  About 
eighty  towns  in  Massachusetts  responded  promptly,  and  the  plan  worked 
admirably.  In  the  Virginia  Legislature  similar  committees,  but  inter- 
colonial, were  proposed  in  March,  1773,  by  Dabney  Carr,  and  were 
eloquently  advocated  by  Patrick  Heuty  and  Richard  Henry  Lee.  The 
resolutions  finally  adopted  were  more  comprehensive,  and  calculated  to 
form  the  Confederacy,  than  those  of  Massachusetts. 

Committees  of  Safety.  A  committee  of  eleven  men  was  appointed 
by  the  second  provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  in  February,  1775, 
to  resist  every  attempt  at  executing  the  acts  of  Parliament.  They  were 
empowered  to  muster  the  militia  and  take  possession  of  warlike  stores. 
In  April  of  the  same  year  the  committee  wrote  to  the  various  Massa- 
chusetts towns,  and  to  New  Hampshire  and  Connecticut,  begging  for 
aid  against  the  tyranny  of  Parliament.  Upon  this  ensued,  as  the  Revo- 
lution advanced,  the  formation  of  such  committees  in  each  province. 
In  each  the  Committee  of  Safety,  appointed  by  the  popular  conventions, 
took  the  place  of  the  royal  Governor  as  the  executive  of  the  province  or 
State,  and  remained  such  until  the  framing  of  the  new  State  Constitu- 
tions. The  name  first  appears  as  the  name  of  a  committee  organized  in 
England  during  the  Civil  War  of  1642-44. 

Commodore.  Until  1862  the  grade  of  captain  was  the  highest  naval 
office  recognized  by  law.  A  captain  who  commanded  two  or  more  ships 
was  called  a  commodore  by  custom,  and  the  title,  having  been  once 
applied,  usually  continued.  In  1862  the  grade  of  commodore,  along  with 
that  of  rear-admiral,  was  created  but  was  abolished  in  1899. 

Compagnie  des  Indes  (Company  of  the  Indies),  a  corporation 
organized  in  Paris  by  John  Law  in  1719,  by  combination  of  the  Guinea 
Company,  the  Company  of  the  West,  the  East  India  Company  and  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  167 

China  Company.  It  was  the  basis  of  his  great  credit  operations,  in  con- 
nection with  his  bank,  and  of  the  Mississippi  Bubble,  but  is  of  impor- 
tance in  American  history  because  it  for  several  years  owned  Louisiana. 

Compromise  of  1833,  a  tariff  measure  passed  by  Congress  March  1, 
1833,  as  a  compromise  for  the  high  tariff  act  of  1828,  which  had  caused 
intense  dissatisfaction  through  the  South,  and  had  brought  about  nulli- 
fication by  South  Carolina  and  a  threat  of  secession  in  the  event  of  its 
being  too  strictly  enforced.  The  compromise  was  proposed  and  passed 
in  the  House  while  Clay  himself  was  endeavoring  to  get  a  compromise 
measure  through  the  Senate.  The  bill  as  passed  was  in  effect  practically 
the  same  as  that  proposed  by  Clay  in  the  Senate.  It  was  designed  to 
scale  down  periodically  the  high  duties  then  existing,  until  after  ten 
years  a  free-trade  basis  should  be  reached.  The  Verplanck  low  tariff 
measure,  then  under  debate  in  the  House,  was  thus  thrown  out. 

Compromise  of  1850,  As  this  compromise  between  the  anti-slavery 
and  pro-slavery  parties  was  finally  passed,  it  took  the  form  of  several 
separate  bills,  which  had  been  practically  comprehended  in  Clay's 
' '  Omnibus  Bill, ' '  proposed  and  defeated  a  short  time  before.  Under  the 
compromise,  Texas  was  allowed  $10,000,000  for  New  Mexico,  and  the 
boundary  of  that  territory  was  cut  down  considerably.  August  13, 
California  was  admitted  to  the  Union  with  her  free  Constitution. 
August  15,  bills  for  establishing  territorial  governments  in  New  Mexico 
and  Utah  were  passed,  containing  a  slavery  option  clause  proposed  by 
Senator  Soule\  August  26,  the  fugitive  slave  bill,  denying  arrested 
negroes  a  trial  by  jury,  and  prohibiting  redress  to  free  colored  seamen 
imprisoned  in  Southern  ports,  was  passed. 

Compromises  of  the  Constitution.  The  Convention  of  1787  was 
mainly  divided  as  to  whether,  in  the  new  government,  one  State's  in- 
fluence should  be  equal  to  that  of  any  other  State,  or  should  be  based 
on  population.  The  plans  for  a  Constitution  submitted  by  Edmund 
Randolph,  of  Virginia,  and  William  Paterson,  of  New  Jersey,  were  diamet- 
rically opposed  in  this  respect.  The  former  favored  representation  ac- 
cording to  population  in  both  Houses  ;  the  latter  an  equal  vote  for  each 
State  and  only  one  House.  Johnson,  of  Connecticut,  proposed  as  a 
compromise  two  Houses,  an  equal  representation  in  the  Senate  and  a 
proportionate  one  in  the  House.  Ellsworth  formally  moved  that  this 
be  adopted,  and  thus  the  first  compromise  was  effected  after  consider- 
able debate.  The  second  was  in  regard  to  the  regulation  of  commerce 
by  Congress.  It  was  proposed  to  tax  both  exports  and  imports  at  the 
discretion  of  Congress.     C.  C.  Pinckney  declared  that  South  Carolina 


1 68  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

would  not  enter  the  Union  if  exports  were  to  be  taxed,  since  nearly  the 
whole  of  her  wealth  lay  in  one  article  of  export — rice.  Hence  it  was 
decided,  August  6,  that  "  no  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  by  the  Legislature 
on  articles  exported  from  any  State,"  and  on  these  terms  the  Federal 
control  over  commerce  was  conceded.  Georgia,  South  Carolina  and 
North  Carolina  refused  to  enter  the  Union  if  the  slave  traffic  was  to  be 
prohibited,  so  the  third  compromise  effected  that  Congress  should  not 
prohibit  the  slave  trade  until  1808,  and  that  a  fugitive  slave  law  should 
be  provided. 

Confederate  Constitution.  The  Constitution  framed  by  the 
Montgomery  Convention  of  1862  was  based  upon  that  of  the  Union  with 
a  few  important  changes.  It  recognized  the  "sovereign  and  independ- 
ent character ' '  of  the  States  and  the  protection  of  slavery  in  all  new 
Territories.  It  prohibited  protective  tariffs  and  general  internal  im- 
provements at  Federal  expense.  The  admission  of  a  new  State  was  to 
be  accorded  by  a  vote  taken  by  the  poll  of  the  States.  State  Legisla- 
tures could  impeach  Confederate  officers  acting  within  their  individual 
jurisdictions.  The  presidential  term  was  lengthened  to  six  years,  and 
the  President  was  made  ineligible  for  re-election.  Heads  of  the  exec- 
utive departments  were  granted  the  right  of  debate  in  Congress,  and 
the  latter's  appropriating  power  was  restricted. 

Confederate  States,  a  government  formed  in  1861  by  seceding 
States.  The  second  State  to  secede,  Mississippi,  at  the  time  of  seces- 
sion, January  9,  1861,  proposed  a  convention  to  form  a  Southern  Con- 
federacy. This  provisional  Congress  met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  on 
February  4,  with  delegates  present  from  six  of  the  seven  States  which 
had  then  seceded.  It  voted  by  States.  On  February  8  it  adopted  a 
provisional  Constitution,  and  the  next  day  chose  Jefferson  Davis,  of 
Mississippi,  provisional  President,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of 
Georgia,  Vice-President.  The  permanent  Constitution  was  adopted  on 
March  11.  It  set  forth  the  doctrines  of  State  sovereignty  and  recog- 
nized slavery,  though  it  forbade  the  slave  trade.  It  forbade  protective 
tariffs  and  Federal  expenditures  for  internal  improvements.  Congress 
was  forbidden  to  emit  bills  of  credit.  It  could  permit  members  of  the 
Cabinet  to  speak  before  it.  The  President  was  empowered  to  veto 
single  items  in  appropriation  bills.  His  term  was  to  be  six  years,  and 
he  was  not  to  be  re-elected.  All  the  seceding  States  ratified  the  Con- 
stitution through  conventions.  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee 
and  Arkansas  seceded,  and  were  admitted  into  the  Confederacy.  The 
seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Richmond,  and  Davis  and  Stephens 
were  chosen  again  under  the  permanent  Constitution.     They  were  in- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  169 

augurated  as  such  on  February  22,  1862.  During  most  of  the  existence 
of  the  Confederate  Government  Judah  P.  Benjamin  was  Secretary  of 
State,  Charles  G.  Memminger  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  James  A. 
Seddon  Secretary  of  War,  Stephen  R.  Mallory  of  the  Navy  and  John  H. 
Reagan  Postmaster-General.  In  this  government  Congress  (see  art. 
Congress,  Confederate)  was  of  little  account.  Everything  was  sub- 
ordinated to  the  energetic  prosecution  of  the  war,  for  which  the  Pres- 
ident assumed  almost  dictatorial  powers.  Extraordinary  efforts  were 
made.  Money  was  obtained  by  means  of  the  issue  of  Treasury  notes, 
by  cotton  loans  and  by  requisitions.  Supplies  were  obtained  by  any 
means  possible.  Troops  were  obtained,  finally,  by  conscription.  The 
Government,  though  given  belligerent  rights  by  most  maritime  na- 
tions, could  not  secure  any  recognition  of  its  independence.  As  the 
armies  began  to  be  more  and  more  completely  destroyed,  dissensions 
broke  out.  Violent  criticism  of  Davis  prevailed.  Finally,  the  surrender 
of  Lee  brought  the  Confederate  Government  to  an  end.  The  Federal 
Government  never  recognized  its  existence. 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  the  first  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  On  the  same  day  on  which  the  Continental  Congress  appointed 
a  committee  to  frame  a  declaration  of  independence,  it  appointed  an- 
other to  prepare  articles  of  confederation.  The  committee  soon  re- 
ported a  scheme.  But  it  was  not  till  November  15,  1777,  that  Congress 
adopted  the  "  Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union."  The 
articles  provided  for  a  single -chambered  Congress,  with  limited  powers 
over  war,  peace,  foreign  affairs,  coin,  weights  and  measures,  Indians 
and  postal  arrangements  ;  it  could  raise  money  only  by  requisitions 
upon  the  States.  In  it  each  State  had  but  one  vote.  Nine  votes  were 
necessary  for  the  most  important  acts.  Ratification  by  every  State  was 
necessary,  and  was  not  secured  till  March  1,  1781.  The  articles  then 
went  into  operation.  Their  leading  defects  were,  that  they  left  too 
much  power  to  the  States,  and  left  Congress  entirely  dependent  upon 
them  for  money  and  the  enforcement  of  its  decrees  ;  that  they  did  not 
operate  on  individuals,  nor  prevent  the  violation  of  treaty  obligations, 
nor  command  respect  abroad,  nor  ensure  tranquillity  at  home  ;  and  that 
they  could  not  be  amended  save  by  consent  of  every  State.  After  vain 
efforts  to  secure  such  consent  to  amendments  which  would  at  least 
have  enabled  the  government  to  pay  its  debts,  it  became  obvious  that 
more  drastic  alterations  were  necessary.  Accordingly  the  Annapolis 
Convention  of  1786  called  the  Philadelphia  Convention  of  1787,  and  the 
articles  were  superseded  by  a  better  Constitution. 

Confiscation.     In  1861  Congress  passed  an  act  directing  a  blockade 


170  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

of  Southern  ports  and  the  confiscation  of  all  property  used  against  the 
National  Government.  This  was  necessary  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
depleted  treasury.  This  policy  was  unflinchingly  enforced  in  1862  and 
later. 

Conger,  IJdwin  H.,  see  appendix,  page  480. 

Congregationalists.  This  denomination  came  first  to  this  country 
with  the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers  "  at  Plymouth,  Mass.  The  Puritans  and 
other  settlers  of  New  England  gradually  were  led  to  separate  from  the 
Church  of  England  and  to  form  themselves  into  Congregational 
churches.  At  first  these  were  closeW  connected  with  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment. Expenses  of  church  and  pastor  were  met  by  public  taxes,  and 
even  the  rights  of  citizenship  depended  upon  church  fellowship.  These 
features,  however,  were  gradually  eliminated  (in  Connecticut  in  1818, 
in  Massachusetts  in  1833),  The  first  colonial  synod  was  held  1637  at 
Cambridge,  Mass. ;  the  second,  1646,  approved  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly's Confession  of  Faith  and  set  forth  a  statement  of  church  polity 
known  as  the  "  Cambridge  Platform."  The  fourth,  held  in  Boston, 
1865,  revised  the  platform  of  church  polity  and  issued  a  declaration  of 
faith.  This  denomination  still  has  its  main  strength  in  New  England, 
but  has  been  carried  westward  by  settlers  in  the  newer  States.  Number 
of  members  in  1890,  513,000. 

Congress.  The  Convention  of  1787  planned  a  Congress  of  two 
Houses,  and  reconciled  the  contest  between  the  large  and  the  small 
States  by  providing  an  upper  House,  in  which  States  were  represented 
equally,  and  a  lower  House,  in  which  they  were  represented  proportion- 
ally to  population.  The  old  Congress  summoned  the  new  Congress  to 
meet  on  March  4,  1789,  but  the  House  did  not  have  a  quorum  till 
April  1,  nor  the  Senate  till  April  6.  Each  Congress  has  been  in  exist- 
ence two  years,  from  March  4  to  March  4.  (See  art.  Sessions.)  The 
relations  of  Congress  with  the  President  have  mostly  depended  on 
whether  they  were  or  were  not  of  the  same  party.  The  warmest 
struggles  have  been  in  the  times  of  Presidents  J.  Q.  Adams,  Jackson, 
Tyler,  Buchanan  and  Johnson.     The  latter  was  impeached  by  the  House. 

Congress,  Confederate.  The  Confederate  Congress  was  practically 
controlled  by  the  executive.  It  never  met  the  executive  face  to  face, 
but  was  obliged  to  provide  for  every  executive  need.  Its  make-up  was 
fictitious  and  carried  little  weight,  the  need  for  force  and  executive 
ability  being  far  more  urgent  in  the  field  than  in  counsel.  In  both  the 
first  and  second  Congresses  Representatives  were  present  from  Ken- 
tucky and  Missouri,  though  those  States  did  not  succeed  in  seceding. 
The  provisional  Congress  held  four  sessions,  the  first  beginning  Febru- 
ary 4,  1861,  the  fourth  ending  February  17,  1862.     Under  the  Constitu- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  171 

tion  there  were  two  Congresses  ;  the  first  (February  iS,  1862 — February 
18,  1865)  had  four  sessions,  the  second  (May  2,  1864 — March  18,  1865) 
two.  They  included  about  twenty -four  Senators  and  a  hundred  Repre- 
sentatives. 

Congress,  Continental,  was  first  suggested  by  a  letter  of  Benja- 
min Franklin  to  the  Assembly  of  Massachusetts  in  1773.  Franklin  was 
then  agent  for  that  colony  at  London.  The  first  step  was  taken  by  the 
Virginia  Assembly  in  1774,  upon  the  news  of  the  passage  of  the  Boston 
Port  Bill.  Its  committee  advised  a  Congress  of  all  the  colonies.  The 
first  Continental  Congress,  therefore,  assembled  at  Philadelphia  Sep- 
tember 5,  1774,  Georgia  alone  being  unrepresented.  Action  was  con- 
fined to  a  declaration  of  the  rights  and  wrongs  of  the  colonies,  a  recom- 
mendation of  an  agreement  not  to  import  British  goods  after  December 
I,  1774,  and  not  to  export  goods  to  England  after  September  10,  1775, 
unless  their  wrongs  were  righted  ;  and  a  resolution  commending  the 
people  of  Massachusetts  for  their  temperate  resistance  to  the  objection- 
able measures  of  Parliament,  and  a  declaration  that,  if  these  acts  "  shall 
be  attempted  to  be  carried  into  execution  by  force,  all  America  ought  to 
support  them  in  their  opposition."  The  second  Continental  Congress 
assembled  May  10,  1775,  at  Philadelphia,  was  a  revolutionary  body, 
plenipotentiary  in  its  nature,  and  was  theoretically  in  perpetual  session 
till  March,  £781.  Each  State  had  but  one  vote.  The  appointment  of 
delegates  was  generally  by  the  State  Legislatures.  The  Congress  de- 
clared independence,  carried  on  the  war,  and  in  many  respects  governed 
the  country.  The  Articles  of  Confederation,  adopted  in  1781,  weakened 
the  Congress  by  requiring  the  assent  of  nine  States  to  make  valid  its 
most  important  acts,  and  forbidding  any  man  to  be  a  member  more  than 
three  years  in  succession.  Under  its  provisions  each  State  should  have 
from  two  to  seven  delegates,  but  only  one  vote.  This  Congress  sat  at 
Philadelphia  until  December,  1776,  then  at  Baltimore  until  March,  1777, 
then  at  Philadelphia  again,  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  September,  1777,  at 
York  until  the  ensuing  June,  at  Philadelphia  again  from  July,  1778,  to 
June,  1783,  then  at  Princeton  until  November,  then  at  Annapolis  until 
June,  1784.  In  November  and  December,  1784,  it  sat  at  Trenton.  From 
January,  1785,  until  its  last  recorded  session  (October  21,  1788),  it  sat  in 
New  York.  Peyton  Randolph  and  Henry  Middleton  were  presidents  of 
the  first  Congress ;  of  the  rest,  successively,  Peyton  Randolph,  John 
Hancock  (1775-1777),  Henry  Laurens  (1778),  John  Jay  (1779),  Samuel 
Huntington  (1779-1781),  Thomas  McKean  (1781),  John  Hanson  (1782), 
Elias  Boudinot  (1783),  Thomas  Miffin  (1784),  R.  H.  Lee  (1785),  John 
Hancock  (1786),  Nathaniel  Gorham  (1786),  Arthur  St.  Clair  (1787), 
Cyrus  Griffin  (1788).  Charles  Thompson  was  secretary  from  1774  to  1788. 


172  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Cotikling,  Roscoe  (1829-1888),  of  New  York,  Senator,  was  elected 
to  Congress  as  a  Republican  in  1858,  i860  and  1868,  was  chosen  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1867  and  re-elected  in  1873  and  1879.  In  the  Senate  he  was 
from  the  first  a  member  of  the  Judiciary  Committee,  was  a  zealous  sup- 
porter of  the  administration  of  President  Grant,  and  advocated  his  elec- 
tion for  a  third  term.  In  1881  he  broke  with  President  Garfield  on  a 
question  of  patronage  and  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  and  was  not 
re-elected. 

Connecticut  is  named  from  the  river  of  that  name,  which  is  an  In- 
dian word  meaning  ' '  long  river. ' '  Two  colonies  were  established  in  Con- 
necticut. Certain  people,  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  close  connec- 
tion of  Church  and  State  in  Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  left  that  province 
for  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  under  Thomas  Hooker,  where  they 
settled  Hartford,  Windsor  and  Wethersfield.  In  1639  they  adopted  a 
Constitution  which  made  no  reference  to  the  King  of  England,  and 
provided  for  the  election  of  all  officers  annually  by  the  people,  with  no 
religious  qualification.  In  1635  John  Winthrop  founded  Saybrook. 
Two  years  later  New  Haven  was  founded  by  a  company  from  England, 
who  came  over,  under  Theophilus  Eaton  and  John  Davenport,  to  estab- 
lish a  strict  theocracy.  They  adopted  the  Bible  as  their  Constitution, 
and  refused  to  institute  trial  by  jury,  because  it  was  not  recognized  by 
the  Bible.  In  1643  Hartford  and  New  Haven  both  joined  the  New 
England  Confederation  for  protection  against  the  Dutch,  who  claimed 
the  valley  of  the  Connecticut.  New  Haven  was  incorporated  with 
Hartford,  in  1662,  under  a  charter  from  Charles  II.,  which  named  the 
South  Sea  as  the  western  boundary.  This  charter  was  adopted  as  a 
Constitution  in  1776,  and  continued  in  force  until  1818.  In  1687  Andros 
had  demanded  this  charter,  but  it  was  concealed  in  the  "  charter  oak." 
In  1700  Yale  College  was  founded.  The  claims  of  Connecticut  to  west- 
ern lands  were  surrendered  to  the  General  Government.  Her  claim  to 
Westmoreland  County,  in  Northern  Pennsylvania,  was  set  aside  in  1782. 
Connecticut  ratified  the  national  Constitution  January  9,  1788,  by  a  vote 
of  128  to  40.  Connecticut  was  strongly  Federalist  until  1820,  was  op- 
posed to  the  War  of  1812,  and  sent  delegates  to  the  Hartford  Convention 
of  1814.  The  State  cast  its  electoral  votes  for  the  Democratic  candidates 
in  the  years  1836,  1852,  1876,  1884,  1888  and  1892.  The  State  has  been 
doubtful  in  State  politics.  In  1891  there  was  a  dispute  over  the  election 
of  Governor,  which  caused  Governor  Bulkley  to  hold  over  after  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was  337>496  ; 
in  1890  it  had  increased  to  746,258.     (History  by  Hollister.) 

Conquistadores,  Spanish  for  conquerors,  the  name  given  to  those 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  173 

Spanish  adventurers  who  conducted  expeditions  of  conquest  in  the 
New  World. 

Conrad,  Charles  M.  (1804-1878),  represented  Louisiana  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Whig  from  1842  to  1843,  ano^  in  Congress  from  1848 
to  1850.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1850  to 
1853. 

Conservative,  a  name  given  to  those  Democrats  who  during  the 
years  from  1837  to  1840  voted  with  the  Whigs  against  the  sub-treasury 
bill,  which  was  then  supported  by  the  Democrats  at  large.  On  other 
questions  the  Conservatives  generally  adhered  to  the  principles  of  their 
party. 

Constable.  In  colonial  times  the  duties  of  the  constable  were  both 
varied  and  extensive.  In  New  England  he  was  usually  appointed  by 
the  selectmen  of  the  town  ;  in  Virginia  and  Maryland  by  the  Hundred  ; 
in  some  States  he  was  appointed  for  the  parish.  The  constable  gave 
notice  of  town  meetings,  collected  and  disbursed  taxes,  was  often  over- 
seer of  the  roads,  made  arrests  and  preserved  the  peace,  and  filled  some 
judicial  functions.  His  scope  of  office  varied  for  different  States  and 
even  for  different  towns,  but  was  in  earlier  times  of  more  importance 
and  dignity  than  now. 

"Constellation,"  the  United  States  man-of-war  commanded  by 
Truxton,  which,  February  9,  1800,  during  the  troubles  with  France  of 
that  period,  defeated  and  captured  the  French  frigate  "  L,'Insurgente  " 
in  the  West  Indies.  Truxton  was  presented  by  Congress  with  a  gold 
medal  for  his  bravery. 

Constitution.  The  first  written  constitution  of  modern  times  seems 
to  have  been  the  Union  of  Utrecht,  or  Constitution  of  the  United  Neth- 
erlands, framed  in  1579.  The  first  suggestion  of  a  written  Constitution 
for  England  was  made  in  the  "Agreement  of  the  People,"  drawn  up  in 
1647.  During  the  Commonwealth  England  had  two  written  Constitu- 
tions, the  Instrument  of  Government,  1653,  and  the  Humble  Petition 
and  Advice,  1657.  Vane's  "Healing  Question"  (1656)  first  suggested 
the  separate  constitutional  convention.  The  first  written  Constitution 
which  any  American  community  framed  for  itself  was  the  Fundamental 
Orders  of  Connecticut,  1639.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  the  desire 
to  have  governments  of  limited  powers  made  it  inevitable  that  the 
Constitutions  should  be  set  down  in  writing.  The  existence  of  colonial 
charters  helped  to  familiarize  the  idea. 

"  Constitution,' *  the  most  famous  of  American  frigates,  a  vessel  of 


174  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

forty-four  guns,  was  finished  in  1798.  Under  Barry  it  had  some  service 
against  the  French  in  1799.  On  July  5,  181 2,  under  Captain  Hull,  it 
started  from  Annapolis  and  ran  into  a  British  fleet  of  five  frigates.  For 
three  days  it  avoided  an  attack  by  masterly  seamanship  and  at  last 
escaped  without  damage.  On  August  19  it  encountered  the  "  Guer- 
riere,"  Captain  Dacres,  not  far  from  Cape  Race.  The  "  Constitution  " 
was  the  stronger  ship  in  the  proportion  of  ten  to  seven,  but  Captain 
Dacres  of  the  ' '  Guerriere  ' '  believed  the  Americans  could  not  fight. 
Within  thirty  minutes  after  the  battle  began  his  vessel  was  a  wreck  and 
seventy-nine  of  his  men  killed  or  wounded.  This  victory  greatly 
strengthened  the  Americans  in  self-confidence  and  prestige.  On  De- 
cember 29,  1812,  in  the  West  Indies,  the  "  Constitution  "  encountered 
the  "Java,"  thirty-eight  guns,  Captain  Lambert.  After  two  hours' 
battle  and  an  hour  spent  in  repairing  damages,  Captain  Bainbridge 
(now  commander  of  the  "Constitution")  was  about  to  renew  the 
attack,  when  the  "  Java"  surrendered.  The  British  lost  about  100 
killed  and  200  wounded.  The  Americans  lost  thirty-four  in  all.  The 
"  Constitution  "  in  this  battle  earned  the  name  of  "  Old  Ironsides." 
Both  the  "Guerriere"  and  the  "Java,"  on  capture,  were  so  disabled 
that  they  were  blown  up.  December  30,  1813,  the  "Constitution," 
Captain  Stewart,  sailed  toward  the  West  Indies.  February  14,  1814,  it 
captured  the  "Picton,"  sixteen  guns,  and  a  convoy.  Next  year, 
February  15,  1815,  it  attacked  and  captured  two  vessels,  the  "  Cyane," 
thirty-six  guns,  and  the  "  Levant,"  eighteen  guns.  The  latter  was 
afterward  recaptured,  the  "  Constitution  "  itself  narrowly  escaping  cap- 
ture at  the  same  time  from  three  British  frigates. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  first  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  was  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  Its  defects  and 
failure  caused  many  to  consider  the  desirability  of  drastic  amendment. 
The  Alexandria  Conference  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  led  to  the  An- 
napolis Convention  of  1786,  this  to  the  Convention  of  1787  at  Phila- 
delphia. That  convention  forthwith  proceeded,  not  to  amend  the 
Confederation,  but  to  make  a  new  Constitution.  This  Constitution 
differed  from  its  predecessor  in  that  it  dealt  directly  with  individuals, 
that  it  invested  the  Federal  Government  with  coercive  powers,  that  it 
provided  an  efficient  executive,  and  that  it  was  susceptible  of  amend- 
ment by  easier  means  than  unanimous  consent.  Since  it  went  into 
operation  in  1789  it  has  been  developed  by  amendment,  by  interpreta- 
tion and  by  custom.  Courts,  especially  the  Supreme  Court,  have  de- 
veloped it  by  interpretation.  Under  Chief  Justice  Marshall  the  court 
much  enlarged  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Government  in  this  way. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY 


175 


Expansions  of  this  sort  have  come  mostly  from  the  clauses  giving 
Congress  the  taxing  power  and  the  power  to  regulate  commerce,  and 
from  the  war  powers  of  the  President  and  Congress.  Usage  has  added 
such  features  as  the  committee  system,  the  Speaker's  power,  the  spoils 
system,  the  gerrymander  and  so  forth.  In  fact  we  have  a  written  Con- 
stitution plus  an  unwritten  Constitution. 

Constitution  Union  Party,  a  name  assumed  by  the  remnants  of 
the  Whig  party  in  the  South  in  the  election  of  i860.  The  party  held  a 
convention  at  Baltimore  May  9,  i860,  in  which  delegates  from  twenty 
States  were  present.  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  was  nominated  for  Presi- 
dent and  Edward  Everett,  of  Massachusetts,  for  Vice-President.  The 
platform  of  the  party  was  of  the  most  general  character,  recognizing 
"  no  political  principle  but  the  Constitution  of  the  country,  the  union 
of  the  States  and  the  enforcement  of  laws."  In  the  election  it  carried 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Virginia,  but  failed  utterly  in  the  North. 
The  Civil  War  blotted  it  out  immediately. 

Constitutions,  First  State.  Upon  the  establishment  of  independ- 
ence in  1776,  the  thirteen  colonies  necessarily  passed  from  the  crown. 
Not  one  of  the  thirteen  was  a  State  prior  to  that  event,  though  a  few 
had  established  temporary  governments  at  the  suggestion  of  Congress. 
Massachusetts  remained  under  the  form  of  government  fixed  by  her 
colonial  charter  until  1780,  Connecticut  until  1818  and  Rhode  Island 
until  1842.  New  Hampshire  was  the  first  to  modify  and  establish  a 
local  government.  She  did  so  in  January,  1776.  South  Carolina,  Vir- 
ginia and  New  Jersey  followed  in  March,  June  and  July  of  the  same 
year,  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  in  September,  Maryland  in  November, 
North  Carolina  in  December,  Georgia  and  New  York  in  1777.  By  1780 
all  had  formed  local  governments  except  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. 

Consul.  Consuls  have  been  appointed  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Government.  By  acts  of  1848  and  i860  they  are  empowered  to  hear  and 
determine  judicial  cases  in  uncivilized  countries. 

Continental  Money.  The  second  Continental  Congress,  in  its 
straits  for  money,  began  in  June,  1775,  to  issue  paper  money.  Alto- 
gether, about  $242,000,000  were  issued  up  to  the  end  of  1779,  when  further 
issues  were  stopped.  For  the  first  year  these  issues  continued  equal  in 
value  to  gold  ;  then  they  began  to  depreciate.  In  two  years  they  had 
become  reduced  till  they  stood  at  two  to  one.  In  three  years  they  stood 
at  four  to  one  ;  in  September,  1779,  at  twenty  to  one ;  in  the  ensuing 
March  at  forty  to  one.  Congress  now  required  the  notes  to  be  brought 
in,  to  be  redeemed  at  their  market  value,  or,  to  a  certain  extent,  replaced 


176  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

by  "  new  tenor  "  notes  at  twenty  to  one,  the  new  issues  to  bear  interest 
at  five  per  cent.  The  old  notes  sank  to  one  thousand  to  one,  and  finally 
ceased  to  circulate. 

Continentals,  the  regular  troops  of  the  American  army  during  the 
Revolution,  enlisted  and  paid  by  the  Continental  Government  and  com- 
manded by  Washington.  They  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  militia 
and  guerrilla  companies.  The  name  was  first  applied  in  June,  1775, 
when  Congress  appropriated  $6,000  for  the  support  of  a  "  Continental 
army,"  and  appointed  Washington  commander-in-chief.  Washington 
at  once  took  command  of  the  forces  then  beleaguering  Boston,  and  ten 
companies  of  expert  riflemen  were  enlisted  in  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia. 

Contraband.  Under  the  laws  of  war,  goods  (such  as  arms)  which 
may  aid  an  enemy  to  prolong  the  war  are  called  contraband  and  held 
liable  to  seizure  and  condemnation,  if  a  neutral  tries  to  introduce  them 
into  the  country  of  the  other  belligerent.  In  1861  General  B.  F.  Butler 
attempted  to  apply  this  distinction  and  regulation  to  the  slaves  of 
Southerners,  when  they  fell  into  his  hands. 

Contrecoeur,  born  about  1730  ;  French  soldier.  In  1754  he  con- 
ducted a  French  force  down  the  Allegheny  River  and  constructed  Fort 
Duquesne,  in  attempting  to  capture  which  Braddock  was  defeated  the 
next  year. 

Contreras,  Mexico,  a  short  battle  between  Pillow's  and  Twiggs' 
divisions  of  General  Scott's  army  and  Valencia,  an  officer  of  General 
Santa  Anna,  on  August  19-20.  Pillow  and  Twiggs  had  been  left  by 
Scott  upon  the  construction  of  a  road  during  his  approach  to  the  city  of 
Mexico.  August  19,  Valencia  made  an  attack,  but  was  repulsed  and 
ordered  by  Santa  Anna  to  retreat.  This  he  refused  to  do  and  the  next 
day  his  camp  was  attacked  and  his  forces  routed.  Americans  4,000, 
Mexicans  6,000. 

Convention,  Constitutional.  In  almost  all  the  States,  the  new 
Constitutions  framed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  period  were 
made  by  the  Revolutionary  Conventions  which  were  managing  all  the 
affairs  of  the  State,  in  the  absence  of  any  constitutional  government. 
But  soon  the  feeling  grew  that  Constitutions  should  be  made  by  conven- 
tions which  the  people  chose  especially  for  that  purpose.  The  Massa- 
chusetts Constitution  of  1780  was  so  made,  and  was  submitted  to  the 
people  afterward.  Since  then  this  has  been  the  regular  practice,  both 
in  the  case  of  old  States  making  new  Constitutions,  and  in  that. of  new 
States  formed  out  of  territories  and  old  States  ;  and  also  in  that  of  re- 
constructed Southern  States.     A  convention  held  at  Montgomery,  Ala., 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  177 

identical  with  the  Confederate  provisional  Congress,  framed  the  Consti* 
tution  of  the  Confederate  States,  March,  1861. 

Convention,  Nominating".  In  the  first  stages  of  American  political 
life,  candidates  for  offices  within  the  gift  of  the  people  either  themselves 
made  public  announcement  of  their  candidacy  or  were  nominated  by 
more  or  less  private  or  informal  caucuses  of  party  leaders.  Next  came 
the  legislative  caucus  (which  see),  the  candidate  of  a  party  being  chosen 
by  a  caucus  of  the  members  of  the  Legislature  belonging  to  that  party. 
Though  a  sporadic  case  of  a  nominating  convention  (at  Harrisburg)  as 
early  as  1788  is  mentioned,  yet  in  general  the  legislative  caucus  was  the 
ordinary  practice  at  that  time.  But  this  gave,  in  the  case  of  a  given 
party,  no  representation  of  those  districts  whose  legislative  delegates 
were  not  of  that  party.  Hence  arose  a  modification  of  the  caucus  ;  the 
legislative  caucus  being  supplemented  by  the  addition  of  delegates 
specially  sent  up  from  those  unrepresented  districts.  This  wTas  the 
half-way  stage  to  the  nominating  convention  pure  and  simple,  which 
consisted  of  delegates  from  all  parts  of  the  State,  chosen  especially  and 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  making  nominations.  This  institution,  which 
has  prevailed  universally  ever  since,  arose  soon,  as  improved  means  of 
communication  between  different  parts  of  a  State  made  it  easy  for  such 
bodies  to  be  convened.  In  Pennsylvania  the  fully  developed  nominating 
convention  of  the  modern  type  appears  in  (1792)  18 17,  in  New  Jersey  in 
1812,  in  Rhode  Island  and  New  York  in  1825.  After  becoming  fully 
developed  in  the  States,  the  system  was  applied  to  Federal  elections. 
The  Presidential  nominations  of  1824  (except  Crawford's  caucus  nomi- 
nation) had  been  made  on  no  well-defined  plan,  those  of  1828  mostly  by 
State  Legislatures.  The  first  national  nominating  convention  was  that 
held  by  the  Anti-Masons  at  Baltimore  in  September,  1831,  by  which 
Wirt  and  Ellmaker  were  nominated.  The  National  Republican  Con- 
vention at  Baltimore,  December,  183 1,  followed.  In  May,  1832,  a  Dem- 
ocratic Convention  nominated  Van  Buren  for  Vice-President.  In  1835 
the  Democrats  at  Baltimore  nominated  Van  Buren  and  Johnson  in 
National  Convention ;  the  Whigs  held  none.  In  1840  both  parties 
adopted  this  practice,  which  has  since  been  followed  without  exception. 
Beginning  with  that  year,  the  principal  conventions  have  been  the  fol- 
lowing: 1839,  Whig,  at  Harrisburg,  nominating  Harrison  and  Tyler; 
1840,  Democratic,  at  Baltimore,  nominating  Van  Buren  but  no  Vice- 
President  ;  Liberty  party  at  Albany,  nominating  Birney  and  Earle ; 
1844,  Whig  at  Baltimore,  Clay  and  Frelinghuysen  ;  Democratic  at  Bal- 
timore, Polk  and  Dallas ;  Liberty  party  at  Buffalo  (1843),  Birney  and 
Morris ;  1848,  Democratic  at  Baltimore,  Cass  and  Butler  ;  Whig  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Taylor  and  Fillmore  ;  Free-Soil  at  Buffalo,  Van  Buren  and 
Vol.  V.— 12 


178  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Adams  ;  1852,  Democratic  at  Baltimore,  Pierce  and  King  ;  Whig  at  Bal- 
timore, Scott  iittd  Graham  ;  Free-Soil  at  Pittsburg,  Hale  and  Julian  ; 
1856,  American  ("Know-Nothing")  at  Philadelphia,  Fillmore  and 
Donelson  ;  Democratic  at  Cincinnati,  Buchanan  and  Breckinridge  ;  Re- 
publican at  Philadelphia,  Fremont  and  Dayton  ;  Whig  at  Baltimore, 
ratified  the  American  nominations  ;  i860,  Democratic  (Moderate)  at 
Charleston  and  Baltimore,  Douglas  and  Johnston;  Democratic  (Extreme) 
at  Charleston,  Richmond  and  Baltimore,  Breckinridge  and  Lane  ;  Con- 
stitutional Union  at  Baltimore,  Bell  and  Everett  ;  Republican  at  Chi- 
cago, Lincoln  and  Hamlin  ;  1864,  Republican  (Radical)  at  Cleveland, 
Fremont  and  Cochrane  ;  Republican  (Regular)  at  Baltimore,  Lincoln 
and  Johnson  ;  Democratic  at  Chicago,  McClellan  and  Pendleton  ;  1868, 
Republican  at  Chicago,  Grant  and  Colfax  ;  Democratic  at  New  York, 
Seymour  and  Blair  ;  1872,  Liberal  Republican  at  Cincinnati,  Greeley  and 
Brown  ;  Republican  at  Philadelphia,  Grant  and  Wilson  ;  Democratic  at 
Baltimore,  ratified  the  Liberal  Republican  nominations  ;  1876,  Green- 
back at  Indianapolis,  Cooper  and  Carey  ;  Republican  at  Cincinnati, 
Hayes  and  Wheeler  ;  Democratic  at  St.  Louis,  Tilden  and  Hendricks  ; 
1880,  Republican  at  Chicago,  Garfield  and  Arthur ;  Greenback  at  Chi- 
cago, Weaver  and  Chambers  ;  Democratic  at  Cincinnati,  Hancock  and 
English  ;  1884,  Republican  at  Chicago,  Blaine  and  Logan  ;  Democratic 
at  Chicago,  Cleveland  and  Hendricks  ;  Prohibitionist  at  Pittsburg,  St. 
John  and  Daniel  ;  Greenback  Labor  party,  Butler  and  West ;  1888,  Pro- 
hibitionist at  Indianapolis,  Fiske  and  Brooks  ;  Democratic  at  St.  Louis, 
Cleveland  and  Thurman  ;  Republican  at  Chicago,  Harrison  and  Morton  ; 
1892,  Republican  at  Minneapolis,  Harrison  and  Reid  ;  Democratic  at 
Chicago,  Cleveland  and  Stevenson  ;  Prohibitionist  at  Cincinnati,  Bid- 
well  and  Cranfell ;  People's  party  at  Omaha,  Weaver  and  Field. 

Convention  of  1787,  the  body  which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  was  first  suggested  by  a  private  letter  of  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton in  1780.  The  State  Legislatures  were  slow  in  considering  the 
matter.  The  convention  was  really  brought  about  by  the  recommenda- 
tion of  a  previous  convention  of  delegates  from  several  States,  who  had 
assembled  at  Annapolis  in  September,  1786,  to  consider  the  regulation 
of  trade.  Virginia  taking  the  lead,  delegates  were  chosen  to  a  conven- 
tion to  amend  the  faulty  Articles  of  Confederation.  By  June  2,  1787, 
delegates  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Virgin- 
ia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Geor- 
gia and  Maryland,  had  assembled  at  Philadelphia,  those  from  the  first 
seven  States  having  arrived  May  25.  On  May  29  Edmund  Randolph, 
of  Virginia,  presented  a  plan  for  "a  more  energetic  government,"  and 
inclining  to  reduce  the  "  idea  of  States  "  to  a  minimum.     He  proposed 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  17$ 

a  correction  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation  ;  representation  by  popula- 
tion ;  two  branches  of  Congress,  the  first  chosen  by  the  people,  the 
second  by  the  first  on  nomination  by  the  State  Legislatures  ;  that  Con- 
gress should  legislate  concerning  commerce  and  taxes  and  should  have 
a  veto  power  over  State  laws  ;  that  Congress  should  choose  the  execu- 
tive, who  should  have  veto  power,  and  a  number  of  other  clauses. 
Charles  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  submitted  another  draft  of  a  Con- 
stitution. These  were  considered  and  reported  favorably.  After  much 
debate  it  was  decided  that  a  national  government  ought  to  be  established. 
June  15,  William  Paterson,  of  New  Jersey,  submitted  a  draft  which  was 
in  nearly  every  respect  incompatible  with  Randolph's,  leaving  far  more 
to  the  States,  that  the  small  States  might  be  protected.  On  the  motion 
of  Ellsworth  a  compromise  was  effected  by  giving  the  States  an  equal 
representation  in  the  Senate  and  a  representation  proportionate  to 
population  in  the  House.  A  compromise  was  also  effected  regarding 
the  regulation  of  commerce  and  the  taxation  of  exports.  The  third 
compromise  forbade  Congress  to  prohibit  the  slave  trade,  and  established 
a  fugitive  slave  law.  July  24,  a  committee  of  detail  was  appointed. 
August  6,  this  committee  of  detail  reported  a  draft  strongly  resembling 
the  Constitution.  A  month  was  spent  in  debate,  and  on  September  12 
this  draft,  amended  by  the  third  great  compromise,  was  given  to  a  com- 
mittee of  style,  consisting  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  Johnson,  Madison, 
Hamilton  and  King.  September  13,  the  Constitution  was  reported  to  the 
convention  very  nearly  in  its  present  form.  In  the  debates  the  leaders 
of  the  nationalizing  party  were  :  Hamilton,  Madison,  King,  Wilson  and 
Morris  ;  of  the  States'  rights,  Lansing,  Yates,  Paterson,  Martin.  On 
September  17,  1787,  the  convention  adjourned,  after  sending  the  Con- 
stitution to  Congress  for  transmission  to  the  States.  Its  proceedings 
were  marked  by  great  moderation  and  wisdom.  It  consisted  mostly  of 
somewhat  conservative  men.  A  movement  toward  a  second  general 
convention  in  1788,  started  by  George  Clinton,  Patrick  Henry  and  other 
Anti- Federalists,  proved  abortive. 

Convention,  Revolutionary.  In  English  history,  conventions, 
resembling  Parliaments  in  everything  but  in  not  being  summoned  by 
the  crown,  were  held  1660  and  in  1689.  Thence  the  name  came  to 
America  and  was  similarly  applied,  as  in  Massachusetts  in  1689  and  in 
South  Carolina  in  1718,  to  irregular  meetings  of  the  popular  branch  of 
the  Legislature,  summoned  in  the  absence  of  executive  authority.  In 
the  troubles  that  led  to  the  Revolution,  when  royal  governors  dissolved 
assemblies,  they  often  met  again  at  once  in  "conventions."  These 
representative  bodies  soon  came  to  have  all  authority,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  royal  government.     In  the  provisional  governments  which  man- 


1 80  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

aged  the  Revolution  in  each  State,  the  controlling  body,  up  to  the  time 
when  the  first  Constitution  was  made  for  the  State,  was  the  convention. 
These  revolutionary  conventions  were  sovereign  bodies,  and  most  com- 
monly they  made  the  State's  first  Constitution,  though  soon  the  feeling 
grew  that  this  should  be  done  by  a  special  convention  elected  by  the 
people  for  that  express  purpose.  Conventions,  supposed  to  represent 
the  sovereignty  of  the  State  in  a  more  complete  degree  than  legislatures 
could,  controlled  the  nullification  proceedings  in  South  Carolina  in 
1832,  and  passed  the  ordinances  of  secession  on  behalf  of  the  Southern 
States  in  i860  and  1861. 

Convention  Troops.  On  October  14,  1777,  the  British  General 
Burgoyne,  finding  himself  surrounded  at  Saratoga,  proposed  to  sur- 
render to  General  Gates.  Accordingly,  October  16,  a  convention  was 
signed  fixing  the  terms  of  capitulation.  It  was  decided  that  Burgoyne, 
his  officers  and  troops  should  march  out  of  camp  with  the  honors  of 
war,  and  should  be  accorded  passports  to  England  upon  promising  to 
abstain  from  war  against  the  States.  In  obedience  to  these  terms  the 
troops  were  marched  to  Boston,  there  to  await  transports  from  Howe. 
During  the  winter  the  troops  remained  quartered  on  Prospect  Hill  and 
Winter  Hill,  the  officers  being  placed  at  Cambridge.  Numerous  delays 
followed.  Congress  disliked  the  terms  ;  an  expression  of  Burgoyne's 
was  construed  as  a  repudiation  of  them.  Finally  General  Heath  was 
instructed  by  Congress  to  suspend  the  embarkation  indefinitely.  Bur- 
goyne and  his  staff  returned  to  England  on  parole.  The  troops  were 
transferred  to  Rutland,  Vt.,  and  afterward  to  Charlottesville,  Va., 
where  they  remained  till  the  close  of  the  war. 

Conventionalists,  in  the  Pennsylvania  politics  of  1 804-1808,  the 
name  assumed  by  those  extreme  Democrats  who  desired  to  see  a  new 
convention  called,  to  modify  the  Constitution  of  the  State  in  a  radically 
democratic  sense,  as  opposed  to  the  so-called  "Constitutionalists." 
Their  leaders  were  Leib  and  Duane. 

Convicts.  In  1619,  by  order  of  King  James  I.,  one  hundred  convicts 
were  sent  from  England  to  be  sold  as  servants.  For  more  than  a  cent- 
ury this  practice  was  from  time  to  time  followed  in  the  case  of  the  royal 
colonies,  in  spite  of  colonial  protests. 

Conway  Cabal.  An  intrigue  by  Gates,  Lee,  Mifflin,  Wilkinson 
and  others  of  Washington's  officers,  in  1777,  for  the  promotion  of  Brig- 
adier-General Conway  contrary  to  Washington's  judgment.  Washing- 
ton was  accused  of  incompetence  and  partiality,  and  finally  Congress 
was  prevailed  upon  to  promote  Conway  to  major-general  and  inspector- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  181 

general.     In  1778  Conway  was  wounded  in  a  duel  and  apologized  to 
Washington,  confessing  his  wrong. 

Cook,  James  (1728-1779),  naval  captain,  commanded  a  frigate  at 
the  capture  of  Quebec  in  1759.  In  1768  he  made  an  expedition,  during 
which  he  sought  for  the  great  continent  supposed  to  exist  near  the 
South  Pole.  From  1772  to  1775  a  more  thorough  exploration  was  made. 
In  1776  he  conducted  an  expedition  to  discover  a  northwest  passage  by 
way  of  Behriug  Strait.  He  discovered  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he 
was  killed  by  the  natives  of  Hawaii. 

Cooke,  Jay,  born  in  1821,  established  the  banking  firm  of  Jay  Cooke 
&  Co.,  at  Philadelphia,  in  i86r,  which  was  the  agent  of  the  United 
States  for  the  war  loans  during  the  Civil  War.  Its  failure  on  September 
19,  1873  ("  Black  Friday  "),  began  the  panic  of  that  year. 

Cooley,  Thomas  M.,  born  in  1824,  of  Michigan,  jurist,  was  ap- 
pointed to  compile  the  statutes  of  Michigan  in  1857,  and  was  reporter 
of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1858.  He  was  a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Michigan  from  1864  to  1885  and  Chief  Justice  in  1868-69.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  from  its  beginning 
in  1887  till  1 89 1.  He  now  holds  the  chair  of  American  History  in  the 
University  of  Michigan  and  is  lecturer  on  constitutional  law  and  political 
science.  He  has  published  a  ' '  Digest  of  Michigan  Reports ' '  and  has 
edited  an  edition  of  Blackstone's  "Commentaries,"  with  copious 
notes.     Died  1898. 

Cooper,  Edward,  an  active  business  man,  son  of  Peter  Cooper, 
was  born  in  1824.  He  was  mayor  of  New  York  from  1879  to  1881  and 
1883,  and  was  active  in*  the  overthrow  of  the  Tweed  ring. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore  (1789-1851),  was  born  in  Burlington, 
N.  J.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1801,  but  resigned  in  181 1.  In  182 1  he 
published  ' '  The  Spy, ' '  the  first  of  his  historical  novels  and  one  of  the 
first  of  American  historical  novels.  This  was  followed  by  ' '  The  Pio- 
neers," "The  I^ast  of  the  Mohicans,"  and  a  long  series  of  romantic 
novels  dealing  with  the  Revolution,  frontier  life,  sea  life  and  the  Amer- 
ican Indian.     He  aLso  wrote  a  history  of  the  American  Navy. 

Cooper,  Peter  (1791-1883),  philanthropist,  was  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  greatly  promoted  the  progress  of  industrial  improvement  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  1854-59  erected  the  "Cooper  Unior/ for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  and  Art,"  where  the  working  classes  Way  re- 
ceive free  instruction.  He  was  a  careful  thinker  on  questions  of  gov- 
ernment and  finance.  In  1876  he  was  the  Presidential  candidate  6(  the 
National  Independent  Greenback  party. 


1 82  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Cooper,  Thomas  (1759-1840),  scientist.  An  English  Democrat,  he 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1795.  He  was  one  of  those  tried  un- 
der the  Sedition  Act,  was  president  of  the  College  of  South  Carolina, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  political  economy  in  America. 

Copper.  The  mining  of  copper  was  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent  in 
Connecticut,  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  in  colonial  times,  and  its 
existence  was  known  of  as  early  as  1660  by  Jesuit  missionaries  about 
Lake  Superior  in  Michigan.  The  first  systematic  mining  for  copper  was 
begun  in  Michigan  in  1844.  From  1867  to  1881  about  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  copper  product  of  the  United  States  came  from  Lake  Superior. 
Immense  copper  fields  have  since  been  opened  in  Montana  and  Arizona. 

Copperhead,  the  name  applied  to  Northerners  who  sympathized 
with  the  South  in  the  Civil  War. 

Copyright.  Clause  8  of  the  Constitution  authorized  Congress  to 
issue  copyrights  to  authors  and  artists  and  patents  to  inventors.  Prior 
to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  States  issued  copyrights,  and 
the  first  act  of  Congress  recognized  the  rights  thus  granted.  The  first 
law  was  enacted  in  1790,  giving  to  authors  exclusive  right  to  their 
works  for  fourteen  years,  with  the  liberty  of  renewal  for  the  same  num- 
ber of  years.  In  1831  the  term  was  made  twenty-eight  years,  with  the 
right  of  renewal  for  fourteen  years.  A  copy  of  the  title  of  the  book  or 
a  description  of  the  article  must  be  sent  to  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
and  not  later  than  the  day  of  publication  two  copies  of  the  book  must 
be  sent  to  the  Librarian.  Copyrights  were  formerly  issued  by  the  Clerks 
of  the  District  Courts  of  the  United  States.  In  1891  Congress  passed  an 
act  granting  the  privileges  of  copyright  to  foreigners  of  nations  whose 
governments  give  American  citizens  similar  privileges.  This  reciprocity 
was  to  be  determined  by  proclamation  of  the  President.  It  was  at  once 
extended  to  Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium  and  Switzerland,  and  sub- 
sequently to  Germany  and  Italy. 

Corcoran,  William  W.  (1798-1888),  a  banker  and  successful  fin- 
ancier during  the  Mexican  War,  was  noted  as  founder  of  the  Louise 
Home  and  the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and  for 
liberality  toward  charitable  institutions. 

Corinth,  Miss.,  fortified  and  occupied  by  General  Beauregard, 
commanding  53,000  effective  Confederate  troops,  and  captured  May  30, 
1862,  by  Generals  Halleck  and  Pope,  leading  an  army  of  over  100,000 
Federals,  after  some  twelve  days  spent  in  skirmish,  siege  and  bombard- 
ment. Beauregard's  lieutenants  were  Van  Dorn  and  Price.  Corinth 
was  bat  weakly  fortified,  but  this  fact  was  unknown  to  the  Federal 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  183 

generals,  strong  outposts  of  Confederate  troops  being  constantly  op- 
posed to  their  advancing  columns.  Pope  sent  Elliot,  Hatch  and  Sheri- 
dan with  strong  detachments  to  make  a  circuit  of  forty  miles  around 
the  town  and  strike  the  railroad.  Stanley's  division  pushed  forward, 
and,  after  a  sharp  skirmish  with  the  Confederate  outposts,  secured  and 
fortified  a  position  directly  opposite  the  Confederate  works.  Paine, 
Crittenden  and  Nelson  joined  him  there.  Sherman  had  meantime  cap- 
tured a  loop-holed  log  house,  manned  by  Confederates  and  situated 
south  of  Corinth.  Sharp-shooters  annoyed  him  from  this  place.  The 
house  was  destroyed  and  Sherman  advanced  close  to  Beauregard's 
earthworks.  Beauregard,  seeing  himself  nearly  hemmed  in,  began  to 
evacuate  on  the  night  of  the  twenty-ninth,  destroying  as  much  as  he 
could,  but  leaving  many  valuable  stores,  nevertheless.  His  evacuation 
was  concealed  by  the  shouting  of  his  men  and  the  blowing  of  whistles, 
which  the  Federals  mistook  for  reinforcements.  Later,  the  place, 
when  in  Federal  possession,  was  assaulted,  but  without  success,  by  a 
large  Confederate  force  commanded  by  Price  and  Van  Dorn,  October 
3-4,  1862.  Rosecrans  held  the  place  with  20,000  Federals  troops  posted 
behind  three  rows  of  earthworks.  Hamilton  held  the  right,  Davies  the 
center  and  McKean  the  left.  Price  advanced  from  the  left  and  Van 
Dorn  from  the  right.  The  assault  was  begun  by  an  impetuous  charge 
by  the  latter  general.  Little  was  done,  however,  the  first  day.  Early 
October  4,  Price's  column  advanced,  drawn  up,  like  a  wedge.  The 
charge  wTas  a  daring  one,  but  the  Confederates  were  driven  back  and 
literally  cut  to  pieces.  The  Texau  and  Mississippi  troops  under  Rogers 
fared  as  badly,  their  charge  ending  the  assault.  They  fled  in  great 
disorder  and  were  pursued  for  some  distance  by  an  Ohio  regiment. 

Cornell,  J$Zta.  (1807-1874),  founder  of  Cornell  University  (1868), 
was  a  member  of  the  first  Republican  National  Convention,  was  elected 
to  the  New  York  Assembly  in  1862-63,  au^  served  in  the  State  Senate 
from  1864  to  1867. 

Cornstalk,  an  Indian  chief  who  led  a  clever  and  spirited  attack 
upon  General  Lewis  at  Point  Pleasant,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Great 
Kanawha  (1774).  Each  side  lost  about  seventy-five  killed  and  one 
hundred  and  forty  wounded. 

Cornwallis,   Charles,   Earl,   and  later  Marquis    Cornwallis 

(1737-1805),  served  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  He  took  his  seat  in 
Parliament  and  favored  the  Americans  during  the  preliminary  troubles. 
Having  been  made  lieutenant-general  he  was  sent  to  America  in  1776, 
fought  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  and  pursued  Washington's  army 


1 84  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

through  New  Jersey.  He  was  defeated  at  Princeton,  decided  the 
victory  of  Brandy  wine  in  1777,  and  served  at  German  town  and  Mon- 
mouth. Having  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Southern  army 
he  overwhelmed  Gates  at  Camden  in  1780,  but  in  his  contest  with 
Greene  he  was  worsted,  although  he  won  a  technical  victory  at  Guil- 
ford Court  House  in  1781.  Then  followed  his  campaign  in  Virginia 
against  Lafayette,  the  siege  of  his  army  in  Yorktown,  and  its  surrender 
to  the  Franco-American  troops  on  October  17,  1781.  He  was  the  ablest 
of  the  British  commanders  in  the  war.  As  Governor-General  of  India, 
1786-93  and  1805,  he  rendered  valuable  military  and  administrative 
services.  He  was  also  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1 798-1801,  at  the 
epoch  of  the  Union. 

Corps,  in  the  Civil  War.  First  Corps  organized  March  13,  1862, 
and  commanded  by  McDowell ;  afterward  reorganized  and  merged  in 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  commanded  by  Wadsworth,  Newton  and 
Hancock  in  succession  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Second  Corps  organized 
August  12,  1862,  and  at  first  commanded  by  Banks  ;  afterward  by  a 
number  of  other  generals  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Third  Corps  organized 
August  12,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Heintzelman  ;  disbanded  in  1864. 
Fourth  Corps  organized  August  1,  1863,  and  commanded  by  Keyes  ; 
afterward  consolidated  with  the  Twentieth  and  Twenty-first  Corps  ; 
disbanded  in  1865.  Fifth  Corps  organized  July  2,  1862,  and  com- 
manded b}>-  Banks  ;  afterward  by  Porter  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  ; 
disbanded  in  1865  ;  many  successive  commanders.  Sixth  Corps  organ- 
ized July  22,  1862,  with  Franklin  in  command  ;  disbanded  in  1865. 
Seventh  Corps  organized  July  22,  1862,  with  Naglee  in  command  ; 
merged  with  Eighteenth  Corps  in  1863.  Eighth  Corps  organized  July 
22,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Schenck  and  Lockwood  ;  afterward  by 
Lew  Wallace  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Ninth  Corps  organized  July  22, 
1862,  and  commanded  by  Burnside  and  others  in  succession  ;  disbanded 
in  1865.  Tenth  Corps  organized  September  3,  1862,  with  Mitchell  in 
command  ;  discontinued  in  1864,  but  reorganized  in  1865  and  continued 
till  the  close  of  the  war  under  various  generals.  Eleventh  Corps  origi- 
nally organized  as  the  Second  Corps  ;  organized  as  the  Eleventh  Sep- 
tember 12,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Banks  ;  consolidated  with  the 
Twelfth  in  1864,  and  constituted  the  Twentieth  ;  disbanded  in  1865. 
Twelfth  Corps  first  organized  as  the  Third  Corps  ;  as  Twelfth  Septem- 
ber 12,  1862  ;  afterward  merged  with  the  Eleventh  to  form  the  Twenti- 
eth, with  Banks  in  command  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Thirteenth  Corps  or- 
ganized October  24,  1862,  with  McClernand  in  command  ;  reorganized  in 
1865  and  commanded  by  Granger.  Fourteenth  Corps  organized  October 
24,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Rosecrans  ;  disbanded  in  1865.     Fifteenth 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  185 

Corps  organized  December  18,  1862,  and  commanded  by  Sherman  ; 
disbanded  in  1865.  Sixteenth  Corps  organized  December  18,  1862, 
and  commanded  by  Hurlbut ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Seventeenth  Corps 
organized  December  18,  1862,  with  McPherson  in  command  ;  disbanded 
in  1865.  Eighteenth  Corps  organized  December  24,  1862,  and  com- 
manded by  Foster  ;  reorganized  in  1864,  and  commanded  by  W.  F. 
Smith  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Nineteenth  Corps  organized  January  5, 
1863,  with  Banks  in  command  ;  organization  abolished  in  1864,  and 
entirely  disbanded  in  1865.  Twentieth  Corps  organized  January  3, 
1863,  and  commanded  by  McCook  ;  afterward  reformed  from  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  in  1863  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Twenty-first  Corps  organized 
January  9,  1863,  and  commanded  by  Crittenden  ;  consolidated  with  "the 
original  Twentieth  in  1863  to  form  the  Fourth.  Twenty-second  Corps 
organized  February  2,  1863,  with  Heintzelman  in  command  ;  disbanded 
in  a  few  months.  Twenty-third  Corps  organized  April  27,  1863,  with 
Hartsuff  in  command  ;  disbanded  in  1865.  Twenty-fourth  Corps  or- 
ganized December  3,  1864,  and  commanded  by  Ord  ;  disbanded  in  1865. 
Twenty-fifth  Corps  organized  December  3,  1864,  of  colored  troops,  and 
commanded  by  Weitzel  and  Heckman  ;  disbanded  in  1866.  Potomac 
Cavalry  Corps  organized  April  15,  1863,  and  commanded  by  Stoneman 
and  afterward  by  Sheridan.  Wilson's  Cavalry  Corps  not  organized 
under  Act  of  Congress,  as  the  others  were.  Engineer  and  Signal 
Service  Corps  organized  in  1864. 

Corrigan,  M.  A.,  Archbishop,  see  appendix,  page  480. 

Cortereal,  Gaspar,  born  in  Lisbon,  died  in  1501.  He  received  a 
license  from  the  King  of  Portugal  to  make  a  voyage  of  discovery  in 
1500.  He  is  reported  to  have  visited  a  country  far  to  the  North,  which 
was  probably  Greenland.  He  made  a  second  voyage  with  three  ships 
in  1501,  during  which  he  sailed  for  six  or  seven  hundred  miles  along 
the  coast  of  America.     His  vessel  was  never  heard  from. 

Cortex,  Hernando,  born  1485  at  Medellin,  Spain,  educated  for  the 
law,  but  adopted  the  profession  of  arms  and  distinguished  himself  under 
Velasquez  in  a  cruel  expedition  against  Cuba.  In  15 18  he  was  intrusted 
with  command  of  700  men  and  10  fieldpieces  to  subjugate  the  Empire 
of  Mexico,  a  hazardous  enterprise  which  he  accomplished  after  incred- 
ible hardships  and  a  campaign  that  lasted  more  than  three  years. 
Notwithstanding  his  valor  and  conquests,  jealousies  at  the  court  caused 
him  to  be  coldly  received  upon  his  return  to  Spain  in  1540,  and  he  died 
in  Seville,  1547,  in  povery  and  neglect. 

Corwin,  Thomas  (1794-1865),  statesman,  was  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  Legislature  1822-1829,  and  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
in  1831,  where  he  represented  the  Whig  party  until  1840,  when  he  was 


1 86  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

elected  Governor  of  Ohio.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  1844- 
1850  and  to  Congress  in  1858  and  i860.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to 
Mexico  by  President  Lincoln,  serving  from  1861  to  1864. 

Cotton.  The  cotton  plant  began  to  be  cultivated  in  Virginia  in  the 
times  of  the  earliest  colonists.  Small  patches  were  grown,  and  the 
lint,  picked  from  the  seed  by  hand,  was  woven  into  cloth  for  domestic 
use.  The  development  of  cotton  manufacture  was  gradual,  and  it  was 
not  until  1750,  when  the  fly  shuttle  was  invented,  that  the  industry  be- 
came extensive  through  the  Southern  States  of  the  Union.  The  spin- 
ning jenny  was  invented  in  England  in  1767  and  immediately  brought 
into  use  in  this  country.  In  1769  Arkwright  patented  a  spinning 
frame,  or  "  throstle,"  in  which  was  a  useful  device  for  spinning  with 
rollers.  Arkwright  adapted  to  this  machine  the  principle  now  known 
as  the  ' '  flyer. ' '  Samuel  Crompton  combined  the  principles  of  the 
fly  shuttle  and  the  "  throstle  "  in  1779,  and  Cartwright  invented  the 
power  loom  in  1785.  The  first  steam  engine  used  in  a  power  mill  was 
set  up  in  1785,  thus  supplying  the  mechanical  power  so  long  needed. 
Eli  Whitney's  cotton  gin,  invented  in  1792,  brought  about  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  cotton  industry.  The  first  successful  cotton  factory  in 
the  United  States  was  that  of  Samuel  Slater,  of  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
established  in  1790.  In  1810  the  whole  consumption  of  cotton  in  this 
country  was  10,000  bales  ;  in  1815  it  had  reached  90,000.  The  total 
product  in  1890  was  14,188,103  bales,  with  a  capital  of  $354,000,000 
employed  in  the  industry. 

Cotton  Gin,  invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1792. 
With  this  machine  the  preparation  of  cotton  for  market  was  enormously 
facilitated  and  the  cotton  industry  increased  proportionately.  The  price 
of  slaves  immediately  rose  and  the  faint  glimmerings  of  emancipation 
sentiment  in  the  South  were  quickly  extinguished,  slave  labor  being 
invaluable  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton. 

Cotton  lyoans,  loans  negotiated  by  the  Confederate  Government. 
It  induced  the  planters  to  promise  that,  when  their  cotton  was  sold, 
certain  sums  or  a  certain  proportion  of  the  crop  should  be  paid  to  the 
government  for  the  management  of  the  war.  In  return,  and  on  this 
basis,  the  government  issued  eight  per  cent,  bonds.  The  loan  proved 
worthless  to  subscribers. 

"  Cotton  Whigs,"  a  name  given  in  the  decade  preceding  the  Civil 
War  to  those  Whigs  in  the  North  who  were  willing,  for  the  sake  of 
conciliating  the  Southern  Whigs,  to  make  as  little  opposition  as  possible 
to  the  extension  of  slavery. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  187 

Couch,  Darius  N.,  general,  born  in  South  East,  N.  Y.,  in  1822. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and  served  against 
the  Seminoles  in  1849-50.  During  the  Civil  War  he  served  as  colonel 
and  brigadier-general,  and  commanded  the  Second  Army  Corps  at 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville.  He  was  quartermaster-general  of 
Connecticut  in  1877-78  and  adjutant-general  in  1883-84.     Died  1897. 

Council.  Under  the  colonial  governments,  the  council,  legislative 
council,  or  executive  council  was  a  body  partaking  of  the  nature  and 
functions  of  an  Upper  House  of  the  Legislature,  and  of  a  privy  council. 
The  name  was  retained  for  the  Upper  House  of  the  Legislature  by  Dela- 
ware until  1792,  by  Georgia  until  1798,  by  South  Carolina  until  1790  and 
by  Vermont  until  1836.  In  later  days  this  name  has  also  been  applied 
to  the  Upper  House  of  the  Territorial  Legislatures.  In  a  few  States  the 
Governor  has  an  executive  council. 

Count  of  Presidential  Votes.  The  two  Houses  meet  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  The  votes  are  opened  by  the  president  of 
the  Senate  and  handed  to  tellers,  who  count  the  votes  and  announce  the 
result.  In  1876  double  returns  were  received  from  certain  States.  In 
1877  an  act  was  passed  applicable  to  that  election  only,  that  no  vote 
should  be  rejected  except  by  concurrent  vote  of  both  Houses,  and  that 
disputes  should  be  decided  by  a  special  Electoral  Commission.  In  1887 
an  act  was  passed  providing  that  the  determination  by  the  States,  under 
State  laws,  of  all  contests  as  to  the  appointment  of  electors,  shall  be  final, 
so  far  as  is  possible. 

County.  In  England  the  county  was  the  primary  subdivision  of  the 
kingdom.  In  the  sparsely  settled  Southern  colonies  it  was  natural  that 
the  county  institutions  of  England  should  be  kept  in  existence  rather 
than  those  of  the  smaller  areas.  Here,  therefore,  county  government 
prevailed.  In  1634  eight  shires  were  erected  in  Virginia ;  called 
counties  in  1639  ;  in  1680  there  were  twenty.  In  Maryland  the  term 
county  first  appears  in  1638.  In  South  Carolina  the  original  subdivision 
of  the  colony  was  the  parish,  to  which  afterward  was  added  the  district. 
Except  for  the  years  1 786-1 790,  the  county  did  not  come  into  existence 
until  1868.  These  Southern  counties  had  institutions  and  officers  re- 
sembling those  of  English  counties — lieutenants,  sheriffs,  justices  and 
quarter  sessions.  In  Massachusetts  counties  were  first  incorporated  in 
1643  \  Dut  tne  life  °f  local  government  was  mainly  in  the  towns.  In 
Rhode  Island  no  counties  were  erected  until  1703.  In  the  Middle  colo- 
nies the  county  came  into  existence  with  the  beginnings  of  English  rule 
or  soon  after. 


1 88  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Court,  General,  the  proper  title  of  the  Legislature  of  Massa 
chusetts.  Its  origin  is  from  the  Massachusetts  Company.  In  the  seven, 
teenth  century  the  general  stockholders'  meeting  of  the  corporation 
was  called  its  general  court.  Hence  the  primary  assembly  of  the  free- 
men of  the  Massachusetts  Company  was  from  the  first  called  the  general 
court,  and  the  name  remained  when  the  assembly  became  representative. 

Court  of  Appeals  in  Cases  of  Capture,  a  tribunal  which 
constituted  the  main  portion  of  the  Federal  judiciary  before  1789. 
General  Washington  made  the  first  suggestion  of  a  Federal  prize  court, 
to  hear  appeals  from  State  courts  in  cases  of  capture  of  prizes.  From 
1776  to  1780  Congress  heard  appeals  by  means  of  committees.  The 
complications  arising  out  of  the  case  of  the  sloop  "  Active,"  which  em- 
broiled the  Federal  Government  with  Pennsylvania  and  showed  the 
weakness  of  the  former,  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  Court 
of  Appeals  in  Cases  of  Capture,  in  1780.  The  court  held  sittings  from 
that  time  to  1787,  and  consisted  of  three  judges.  The  court  and  the 
committees  which  preceded  it  took  cognizance  of  118  cases.  It  was  a 
precursor  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Court  of  Claims.  This  court,  founded  in  1855,  hears  claims 
against  the  government  on  any  regulation  of  an  executive  department 
or  on  any  contract,  express  or  implied,  with  the  government  of  the 
United  States.  Before  the  establishment  of  this  court,  those  having  just 
claims  against  the  government  had  no  remedy  but  to  petition  Congress. 
The  court  at  first  reported  its  proceedings  to  Congress,  and  that  body 
acted  upon  the  reports.  Since  1863  report  to  Congress  has  not  been 
required. 

Covode  Investigation,  an  action  taken  by  the  Thirty-sixth 
Congress  during  President  Buchanan's  administration  in  inquiring  into 
certain  charges  made  by  two  Anti-Lecompton  Democrats  of  the  House, 
who  alleged  that  the  administration  had  endeavored  to  influence  them 
corruptly  to  vote  for  the  Lecompton  Bill.  A  committee  of  five  investi- 
gated the  charges,  the  Republican  majority  sustaining  them,  and  the 
Democratic  minority  exonerating  the  President.     No  action  was  taken. 

Cowboys,  the  name  given  to  British  camp-followers  and  marauders 
who  infested  the  neutral  ground  between  the  two  armies  in  New  York 
State  during  the  Revolution.  They  were  constantly  skirmishing  with 
the  "  Skinners,"  the  Continental  marauders. 

Cowpens,  Battle  of  the,  January  17,  1781.  When  Cornwallis 
marched  into  North  Carolina  he  sent  Tarleton  with  1,100  men  against 
Morgan.      On  Tarleton's  approach  Morgan  took  his  position  at  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  189 

Cowpens  upon  the  slope  of  a  hill.  His  militia  was  in  front,  his  regulars 
on  higher  ground,  and  at  the  top  of  the  slope  Colonel  Washington  with 
the  cavalry.  As  the  British  advanced  Pickens'  militia  delivered  a  num- 
ber of  deadly  volleys  and  retired  behind  the  lines.  The  regulars  then 
met  the  enemy  with  a  murderous  fire,  followed  by  a  bayonet  charge. 
At  the  same  time  the  American  cavalry  struck  their  right  flank  and 
the  militia  formed  again  behind  the  lines  on  the  left.  The  rout  was 
complete.  The  British  loss  was  230  killed  and  wounded  and  600  taken 
prisoners,  a  number  equal  to  the  whole  American  force  engaged.  In 
point  of  tactics  this  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  battles  of  the  war. 

Cox,  Jacob  D.,  born  in  1828,  during  the  Civil  War  was  promoted 
to  be  major-general  and  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Kingston,  N.  C. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  1869-1870,  and  Representative  in 
Congress  1877-1879. 

Cox,  Samuel  S.  (1824-1889),  was  editor  of  the  Columbus,  Ohio, 
Statesman,  in  which  he  published  the  gorgeous  article  which  gave  him 
the  sobriquet  of  "  Sunset "  Cox.  In  1855  he  was  Secretary  of  Legation 
to  Peru,  and  1885-86  Minister  to  Turkey.  He  spent  twenty  years  in 
Congress,  beginning  in  1857,  and  was  an  effective  .speaker,  lecturer  and 
writer. 

Coxe,  Tench  (1756-1824),  successively  a  Royalist,  Whig,  Federalist 
and  Republican,  was  a  commissioner  to  the  Annapolis  Convention  in 
1786,  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  1788  and  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  from  1789  to  1792. 

Craft  Case,  an  important  fugitive  slave  case.  In  1848  William 
Craft  and  his  wife  Ellen,  who  was  nearly  white,  fled  from  Macon,  Ga. 
Pollen  impersonated  a  Southern  lady,  carried  her  right  arm  in  a  sling 
that  she  might  not  be  expected  to  write,  bandaged  her  face  and  wore 
green  goggles.  William  accompanied  her  as  her  servant.  The  couple 
at  length  reached  Boston,  and  here  engaged  the  attention  of  Theodore 
Parker.  After  the  passage  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850  their 
identity  was  discovered  and  they  M^ere  finally  obliged  to  leave  the  city. 
They  reached  England,  where  the  remainder  of  their  days  were  spent 
in  peace. 

Craney  Island  (Chesapeake  Bay)  commanded  the  approach  to 
Norfolk.  1,500  troops  were  sent  on  June  3,  1813,  from  the  British  fleet 
under  Admiral  Warren  to  capture  the  island,  which  was  defended  by 
737  men  directed  by  General  Robert  B.  Taylor.  The  American  artiller)' 
opened  upon  them  with  terrible  effect.  Five  of  the  transport  barges 
were  sunk  and  the  rest  retreated.     The  British  loss  was  eighty-one,  the 


i9o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Americans  lost  none.     This  defeat  frustrated  all  hope  of  capturing 
Norfolk. 

Crawford,  George  W.,  born  in  1798,  was  Attorney-General  of 
Georgia  from  1827  to  1831.  He  was  a  Whig  member  of  Congress  in 
1843.  He  was  Governor  of  Georgia  from  1843  to  J845.  He  was  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to  1850. 

Crawford,  William  (1 732-1 782),  participated  in  Braddock's  ex- 
pedition against  Fort  Duquesne,  fought  at  Long  Island,  Trenton  and 
Princeton  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  captured  and  put  to 
death  in  an  expedition  against  the  Wyandot  and  Delaware  Indians. 

Crawford,  William  Harris  (1772-1834),  served  in  the  Georgia 
Legislature  and  obtained  distinction  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1807-13,  being  president  pro  tern,  for  a  part  of  the 
time.  His  career  in  this  office,  followed  by  his  ministry  to  France  in 
1813-15,  and  his  long  service  as  Secretary  of  War,  1815-16,  and  of  the 
Treasury,  1816-25,  brought  him  prominently  forward  as  a  candidate  for 
Monroe's  successor  in  the  Presidency.  He  was  one  of  the  four  candi- 
dates voted  for  in  the  famous  election  of  1824,  receiving  forty-one 
electoral  votes,  and  with  Adams  and  Jackson  he  was,  after  that  indecisive 
contest,  brought  before  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  like  Jackson 
he  went  down  before  the  Adams  and  Clay  forces.  He  left  the  reputation 
less  of  a  statesman  than  of  a  political  manipulator. 

Crasjy  Horse,  an  Indian  chief  of  the  Sioux  nation,  brother-in-law 
of  Red  Cloud.  With  Sitting  Bull  he  destroyed  General  Custer's  com- 
mand on  the  Little  Big  Horn  in  1876,  but  surrendered  to  General  Crook 
in  1877. 

Credit  Mobilier,  a  corporation  chartered  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Legislature  as  the  "  Pennsylvania  Fiscal  Agency,"  which  in  1864  be- 
came a  company  to  construct  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.  In  the 
Presidential  campaign  of  1872  the  Democratic  leaders  charged  the  Vice- 
President,  the  Vice-President  elect,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Speaker  of  the  House  and  other  prominent  men  with  accepting  Credit 
Mobilier  stocks  in  return  for  political  influence.  An  investigation 
which  followed  resulted  in  the  censure  of  Representatives  Oakes,  Ames 
and  James  Brooks. 

Creek  Indians  originally  lived  on  the  Flint,  Chattahoochee,  Coosa 
and  Alabama  Rivers,  and  in  the  peninsula  of  Florida.  It  was  not  until 
the  overthrow  of  the  French  power  that  they  came  completely  under 
English  influence.     During  the  Revolution  the  Creeks  joined  the  Brit- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  191 

ish,  assisting  in  an  attack  on  Wayne's  army  in  1782.  In  1790  they  made 
a  friendly  treaty,  but  renewed  hostilities  in  1792.  Another  treaty  was 
made  in  1796,  and  in  1802  and  1805  they  began  to  cede  lands.  Joining 
the  English  in  the  War  of  1812,  they  attacked  Fort  Mimms,  August  30, 
1813,  and  massacred  400  people.  They  suffered  repeated  defeats,  and  were 
completely  overthrown  by  General  Jackson  at  Horseshoe  Bend,  March 
27,  1814.  A  treaty  of  peace  followed  in  which  they  surrendered  large 
tracts  of  land.  Early  in  the  century  a  part  removed  to  Louisiana  and 
later  to  Texas.  A  treaty  was  made  in  1825  ceding  more  lands,  but  was 
repudiated.  The  nation  then  divided,  one  party  favoring  emigration, 
the  other  opposing  it.  In  1836  a  part  aided  the  Government  against  the 
Seminoles,  but  the  remainder  attacked  the  frontier  towns  of  Georgia 
and  Alabama.  General  Scott  reduced  them,  and  the  tribe  was  removed 
to  a  reservation  between  the  Arkansas  and  the  Canadian.  The  Civil 
War  divided  the  tribe,  those  adhering  to  the  Union  being  finally  defeated 
by  the  Confederates.  In  1866  the  Creeks  ceded  a  large  tract  to  the 
Government. 

"Creole"  Case.  On  November  7,  1841,  seventeen  negroes  rose 
against  the  officers  of  the  brig  "  Creole,"  bound  from  Hampton  Roads 
to  New  Orleans  with  a  cargo  of  slaves.  One  of  the  vessel's  owners  was 
killed,  and  the  vessel  was  captured  and  run  into  Nassau.  Here  all  were 
set  at  liberty  except  those  charged  with  murder.  The  demand  for  their 
surrender,  made  by  the  administration,  was  refused  by  Great  Britain, 
but  the  matter  was  finally  adjusted  by  the  treaty  of  August  9,  1842. 
During  the  progress  of  negotiations  J.  R.  Giddings,  of  Ohio,  offered  a 
series  of  resolutions  which  laid  down  the  fundamental  positions  of  the 
anti -slavery  party. 

Creswell,  Jolm  A.  J.  (1828-1891),  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1863  to  1865.  He  was  Postmaster-General  of  the  United  States  from 
1869  to  1874. 

Crisp,  Charles  Frederick,  of  Americus,  Ga.,  was  born  in  Shef- 
field, England,  in  1845.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  army  from  1861 
to  1864.  In  1866  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  from  1872  to  1877  was 
Solicitor-General  of  Georgia.  He  served  as  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Georgia  from  1877  to  1882,  when  he  resigned  and  accepted  a  nomina- 
tion to  Congress,  of  which  he  was  chosen  Speaker  in  1891  and  again  in 
1893.     Died  1896. 

Crittenden,  George  C.  (1812-1880),  son  of  J.  J.,  a  major  and  lieu- 
tenant-colonel in  the  Texan  Revolution,  joined  the   Confederates  as 


i9 2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

brigadier-general,  and  as  major-general  was  defeated  in  a  rash  attack 
upon  General  Thomas  at  Fishing  Creek. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordan  (1787-1863),  was  in  early  life  a  lawyer, 
Attorney-General  of  Illinois  Territory,  and  a  soldier  in  the  War  of  1812. 
Few  Americans  have  been  U.  S.  Senators  at  such  different  periods. 
Crittenden  was  in  the  Senate  from  Kentucky  in  1817-19,  and  again  in 
1835-41,  1842-49,  and  1855-61.  In  the  intervals  he  was  a  U.  S.  District 
Attorney,  was  Attorney-General  under  Harrison  in  1841,  and  again  un- 
der Fillmore  in  1850-53.  He  was  a  prominent  Whig.  He  supported 
Bell  and  Everett  in  i860,  and  after  the  election  he  came  forward  with 
the  "  Crittenden  Compromise"  in  the  vain  attempt  to  avert  the  impend- 
ing war.  He  sided  with  the  North,  and  in  1861-63  was  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  from  Kentucky. 

Crittenden,  Thomas  !•.,  son  of  J.  J.,  born  in  1815,  a  lieutenant 
and  aide  to  General  Taylor  in  the  Mexican  War,  was  Consul  to  Liver- 
pool 1849-53  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Civil  War,  commanding 
a  division  at  Shiloh  and  a  corps  at  Chickamauga. 

Crittenden  Compromise.  In  i860  Senator  John  J.  Crittenden  in- 
troduced a  proposition  for  a  constitutional  amendment  which  would 
permanently  divide  the  Union  into  a  free-state  and  a  slave-state  portion, 
the  boundary  being  the  line  of  360  30'.  The  United  States  was  to  pay 
the  owner  for  any  fugitive  slave  rescued.  The  proposition  met  with  no 
success  in  Congress. 

Crockett,  David  (1786-1836),  a  famous  frontiersman,  with  Gen- 
eral Jackson  in  the  Creek  War,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1827  to 
1831  and  from  1833  to  1835.  He  was  one  of  the  last  six  survivors  at 
Fort  Alamo  who  were  massacred  by  Santa  Anna. 

Croghan,  George,  born  in  Louisville  1791,  son  of  a  continental  offi- 
cer, entered  the  army  in  18  n  and  participated  in  the  battle  of  Tippe- 
canoe in  that  year.  Distinguished  himself  in  a  sortie  from  Fort  Meigs, 
for  which  he  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  with  rank  of  major,  and  as- 
signed to  the  defense  of  Fort  Stephenson.  Fearing  that  Croghan  would 
be  crushed  by  Tecumseh's  Indians  and  the  British,  Harrison  ordered 
him  to  burn  the  Fort  and  retreat,  but  he  protested  against  the  order  and 
obtained  permission  to  defend  the  place.  WThen,  therefore,  on  August 
1,  1813,  the  English  commander  summoned  Croghan  to  surrender,  he 
received  a  defiant  reply.  An  attack  was  made  by  an  overwhelming 
number  from  four  sides,  which  Croghan  bravely  met  with  his  little 
band,  killing  one-fifth  of  the  enemy's  force,  and  winning  one  of  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  193 

greatest  victories,  considering  the  number  of  men  engaged,  in  the  annals 
of  history. 

Croker,  Richard,  born  in  1843,  in  Ireland.  He  became  leader  of 
Tammany  in  1885,  and  has  since  been  a  great  force  in  New  York  City 
and  State  politics. 

Crompton,  William,  born  in  1806,  devised  a  loom  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fancy  cotton  goods  in  1837,  which,  since  its  adaptation  to 
woolens  in  1840,  has  been  employed  almost  exclusively. 

Crompton's  Gap,  Va.,  was  the  scene  of  a  stubborn  four  hours'  fight 
between  the  forces  of  General  McClellan  and  Howell  Cobb,  September 
14,  1862,  in  which  the  losses  on  both  sides  were  severe,  and  neither 
gained  any  marked  advantage. 

Cromwell,  Oliver  (1599-1658),  Lord  Protector  of  England  from 
1653  to  l658,  was  appointed  in  1643  one  of  a  board  of  commissioners  for 
the  general  management  of  all  the  English  colonies  in  America.  After 
his  elevation  he  proposed  to  the  colonists  of  Massachusetts  that  they 
move  to  Jamaica,  then  recently  conquered  (1656).  During  the  war  be- 
tween England  and  Holland  he  sent  at  the  solicitation  of  Connecticut  a 
fleet  with  a  land  force  on  board  for  protection  against  the  Dutch  settlers, 
and  to  take  summary  possession  of  New  Netherland  ;  but  the  war  soon 
ended. 

Crook,  George  (1828-1890),  commanded  the  Pitt  River  expedition 
in  1857,  and  during  service  in  the  Civil  War  was  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  commanded  the  second  cavalry  division  at  Chickamauga. 
He  had  charge  of  the  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  March 
26,  1865,  till  the  surrender  at  Appomattox,  and  from  1866  on  was  chiefly 
occupied  in  quelling  Indian  disturbances.  In  1888  he  was  appointed  a 
major-general  of  the  U.  S.  army. 

Cross  Keys,  Va.,  an  indecisive  action,  June  8,  1862,  between  12,- 
750  Federals  under  Frdmont  and  Ewell's  column  of  Jackson's  army  of 
17,000  Confederates.  Ewell  was  reinforced  by  Taylor  and  Patton  lead- 
ing a  Louisiana  and  a  Virginia  brigade.  Fremont's  line  of  battle,  a 
mile  and  a  half  long,  was  advantageously  arranged.  The  Federals  be- 
gan the  battle,  advancing  steadily  under  a  heavy  fire,  Stahl's  Pennsyl- 
vania troops  faring  the  worst.  He  was,  however,  supported  by  Bohlen, 
Schenk  and  Milroy,  and  thus  was  not  compelled  to  retreat.  Taking  a 
strong  position  on  a  hill,  he  was  repeatedly  cannonaded  by  the  Confed- 
erates, but  they  were  easily  driven  off  by  his  superior  batteries. 

Crown  Lands.     After  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  a  royal  proclama- 
Vol.  V.— 13 


i94  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tfon  from  Great  Britain  set  aside  all  lands  west  of  the  colonies  as 
"  crown  lands,"  exclusively  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  home  govern- 
ment, and  as  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  Indians.  The  colonists  were 
forbidden  to  make  purchase  of,  or  settlement  in,  any  of  this  reserved 
territory  without  the  Royal  permission.  After  the  Revolution  this  re- 
serve was  claimed  by  various  States. 

Crown  Point,  was  fortified  by  the  French  in  1731,  and,  in  spite  of 
expeditions  against  it  in  1755  and  1756,  was  held  by  them  until  1759.  It 
was  then  abandoned  by  reason  of  the  fall  of  Ticonderoga.  In  1775  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  as  a  part  of  the  scheme  to 
seize  the  route  to  Canada,  and  capture  the  British  stores  at  Ticonderoga 
{q.  v.)  and  Crown  Point,  Seth  Warner  was  dispatched  against  the  latter 
place.  On  the  morning  of  May  10,  while  Arnold  and  Allen  were  busy 
at  Ticonderoga,  Warner  seized  Crown  Point,  thus  gaining  possession  of 
more  than  200  cannon,  and  a  great  supply  of  powder  and  ball. 

Orowninshield,  Benjamin  W.  (1772-1851),  of  Massachusetts,  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1814,  in  Madison's,  until  1818  in  Monroe's 
Cabinet,  was  a  Presidential  elector  in  1820,  and  a  Democratic  member  of 
Congress  from  1823  to  183 1. 

Cuba.  In  1849-52  three  filibustering  expeditions  were  made  against 
Cuba  from  this  country.  They  were  incited  by  Narcisso  Lopez,  a  South 
American  military  adventurer,  who  persuaded  Governor  Quitman  and 
other  Southern  expansionists  that  the  island  was  ripe  for  revolt  from 
Spain  and  annexation  to  the  United  States.  These  expeditions  failed 
and  Lopez  was  executed  by  the  Cuban  authorities.  Again,  in  1854, 
Southern  annexationists  attempted  to  fit  out  an  expedition  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Cuba,  but  were  prevented  by  a  timely  warning  from  the  Presi- 
dent. In  that  year  an  American  steamer,  the  "  Black  Warrior, ' '  was 
seized  by  the  Cuban  authorities.  Indemnity  was  demanded  from  Spain, 
which  was  accorded  finally,  but  not  before  the  Ostend  Manifesto  had 
been  issued  by  a  conference  of  our  ministers  to  the  English,  French  and 
Spanish  courts,  demanding  the  sale  of  Cuba  by  Spain.  The  "  Vir- 
ginius"  affair  (which  see)  occurred  in  1873,  during  one  of  the  at- 
tempts of  Americans  to  assist  revolting  Cubans.  In  1891  the  United 
States  made  a  reciprocity  treaty  with  Spain  respecting  trade  with  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico.  Spanish -American  War,  1898  (which  see),  was 
begun  in  behalf  of  Cubans  in  revolt  since  1895.  Matanzas  batteries 
bombarded,  April  27,  1898.  June  24,  battle  Siboney.  July  1,  El 
Caney  taken.  July  1  to  17,  battles  of  Santiago.  August  14,  Captain- 
General  Blanco  received  orders  to  suspend  hostilities.     January  1,  1899, 


■— \ 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  195 

military  occupation  by  American  forces.     The  population,  by  enumera- 
tion, January  1,  1900,  was  1,572,840. 

Cullom,  Shelby  M.,  born  in  1829,  chosen  Speaker  of  the  Illinois 
Legislature  in  i860,  was  a  member  of  the  war  commission  at  Cairo  in 
1862  and  a  member  of  Congress  from  1865  to  1871.  As  chairman  of  the 
Illinois  delegation  at  the  Republican  convention  he  placed  General 
Grant  in  nomination  in  1872  and  General  Logan  in  1884  ;  and  from  1883 
to  1897  was  U.  S.  Senator. 

Culpeper,  John,  leader  of  an  insurrection  in  the  Northern  colony 
of  the  Carolinas  in  favor  of  popular  liberty  in  1678.  While  in  England 
negotiating  for  the  new  government  he  was  indicted  for  high  treason, 
but  was  acquitted. 

Cumberland  Church,  Va.  It  was  at  this  place  the  Confederates 
won  their  last  victory  in  the  Civil  War,  April  7,  1865,  when  General 
"Tiger"  Anderson's  brigade  struck  the  flank  of  a  brigade  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  and  captured  it  after  hours  of  severe  fighting,  in 
which  the  losses  on  both  sides  were  great.  On  the  second  day  following 
the  flags  were  furled  at  Appomattox. 

Cumberland,  Port.  This  fort  was  erected  in  Maryland  at  the 
instance  of  General  Braddock  in  1755  during  his  fatal  expedition  against 
the  French  Fort  Duquesne.  Colonel  James  limes  was  left  in  command 
with  a  small  force  and  thither  Braddock 's  forces  fled  after  their  defeat 
by  the  French  and  Indians.  Colonel  Washington  afterward  com- 
manded the  fort,  to  protect  the  settlers  from  Indian  raids. — In  1755, 
Fort  Beausejour  on  the  Maine  frontier,  which  had  been  built  by  the 
French  in  1754,  was  captured  by  English  troops  and  the  name  changed 
to  Fort  Cumberland. 

Cumberland  Gap,  Tenn.,  captured  by  the  Nationals  under 
Morgan  during  the  battle  of  Chattanooga  and  afterward  abandoned.  It 
was  occupied  by  the  Confederates  in  1863,  and  from  it  General  Frazier 
commanding  2,000  men  was  dislodged  by  8,000  Federals  under  Burn- 
side.  Frazier  resisted  for  four  days,  but  his  provisions  gave  out  and 
Burnside  was  reinforced  by  Shackleford's  brigade.  Frazier  surren- 
dered September  9. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  This  denomination  was  a 
development  of  the  "  Great  Western  Revival  of  1800."  The  Presbytery 
in  Kentucky  appointed  lay  preachers,  who  were  said  to  be  illiterate  and 
unsound  in  doctrine.  The  suspension  of  these  by  the  synod  resulted  in 
a  schism  in  181 1  and  the  formation  of  the  above  named  sect.     In  the 


196  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

main  it  is  an  attempt  to  steer  between  the  Calvinism  of  the  Presbyterians 
and  the  Arminianism  of  the  Methodists.  They  now  number  over 
165,000  members,  largely  confined  to  the  South. 

Currency  Bill.  For  several  years  the  most  vital  question  dividing 
the  Democratic  and  Republican  parties  was  that  which  concerned  the 
currency.  The  former  demanded  the  remonetization-of  silver  at  a  parity 
of  16  to  1,  and  the  latter  denouncing  such  a  scheme  as  an  approach  to 
repudiation.  After  the  election  of  McKinley,  proposal  was  directly  made 
not  only  to  reform  the  currency,  but  to  adopt  the  gold  'standard,  which 
was  finally  consummated  February  15,  1900,  by  Senate  action  in  adopt- 
ing, by  a  vote  of  46  to  29,  a  bill  which  provides  as  follows  :  The  dollar  of 
25t%  grains  of  gold,  nine-tenths  fine,  shall  be  the  standard  unit  of  value, 
and  all  forms  of  United  States  money  shall  be  maintained  at  a  parity 
with  it ;  and  Treasury  notes  and  greenbacks  shall  be  redeemable  in  gold. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  to  set  apart  a  fund  of  $150,000,000  in 
gold  for  the  redemption  of  these  notes,  and,  to  maintain  this  fund  at  a 
figure  not  below  $100,000,000,  he  is  empowered.to  sell  bonds  of  the  United 
States  bearing  interest  at  not  exceeding  three  per  cent.  It  also  made 
the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  as  fast  as  standard  silver 
dollars  are  coined,  to  retire  an  equal  amount  of  Treasury  notes,  and  to 
issue  silver  certificates  against  the  silver  so  coined.  Under  certain  pro- 
visions, too,  gold  certificates  shall  be  issued  against  the  gold  held  in  the 
Treasury.  No  United  States  notes  nor  Treasury  notes  shall  be  issued  in 
denominations  of  less  than  ten  dollars,  and  no  silver  certificates  in 
denominations  of  more  than  ten  dollars.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
is  also  authorized  to  refund  the  bonded  debt  of  the  United  States  in 
thirty-year  bonds,  bearing  two  per  cent,  interest,  the  principal  and  in- 
terest of  these  bonds  to  be  paid  in  gold.  The  two  per  cent,  bonds  shall 
be  issued  at  not  less  than  par.  Any  national  bank,  by  depositing  with 
the  United  States  bonds  of  this  country,  shall  be  permitted  to  issue  cir- 
culating notes  to  the  face  value  of  the  bonds  deposited,  no  bank  being 
allowed  to  issue  circulating  notes  in  excess  of  the  amount  of  the  paid-in 
capital  of  the  bank. 

Curry,  J.  I,.  M.,  see  appendix,  page  481. 

Curtiil,  Andrew  G.,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1815,  a  Presidential 
elector  in  1848,  and  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1861  to  1865.  He 
was  one  of  the  "  war  Governors  "  who  supported  the  National  Govern- 
ment, and  furnished  25,000 men  known  as  the  "  Pennsylvania  Reserve." 
He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Russia  in  1869  and  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress by  the  Democratic  party,  serving  from  1881  to  1887.     Died  1894. 

Curtis,  Benjamin  R.  (1809-1874),  appointed  to  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  in  1851  by  President  Fillmore,  dissented  in  the  Dred  Scott  cas- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  197 

and  resigned  in  1857.     He  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  President  Johnson 
in  the  impeachment  trial  of  1868. 

Curtis,  George  Ticktior  (1812-1894),  a  Boston  lawyer  from  1836 
to  1862,  when  he  removed  to  New  York,  was  largely  engaged  in  pro- 
fessional and  historical  investigations,  and  published  many  valuable 
works,  among  them  being  ' '  Commentaries  on  the  Jurisprudence,  Prac- 
tice and  Peculiar  Jurisdiction  of  the  Courts  of  the  United  States  "  and 
a  "History  of  the  Origin,  Formation  and  Adoption  of  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,"  and  the  first  volume  of  a  "  Constitutional  History 
of  the  United  States." 

Curtis,  George  William  (1824-1892),  was  in  early  life  a  member 
of  the  famous  Brook  Farm  community,  a  European  traveling  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  an  editor  of  Putnam's  Monthly. 
,His  later  reputation  rests  on  four  forms  of  achievement :  as  an  eloquent 
and  cultured  lyceum  lecturer  and  platform  orator  ;  as  the  author  of 
several  books,  including  "Nile  Notes,"  "Lotus  Eating,"  "  Prue  and 
I,"  "Trumps,"  "  Potiphar  Papers,"  etc.  ;  as  an  editor  of  Harper's 
Weekly  and  the  writer  of  "  Easy  Chair"  of  Harper's  Magazine,  and 
as  a  politician.  He  was  a  noted  delegate  in  the  Republican  National 
Conventions  of  i860,  1880  and  1884.  He  was  identified  with  civil  serv- 
ice reform  from  the  start,  and  was  by  President  Grant  appointed  in  1871 
a  commissioner  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  rules.  The  National 
Civil  Service  Reform  League  was  largely  his  work. 

Curtis,  Samuel  R.  (1S07-1866),  an  Ohio  lawyer  from  1841  to  1846, 
became  adjutant-general  of  militia  in  1846,  and  in  the  Mexican  War 
commanded  at  Camarago  against  General  Urrea.  Pie  was  a  Congress- 
man from  Iowa  from  1857  to  1861,  when  he  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general  and  gained  a  great  victory  at  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.  He  commanded 
Fort  Leavenworth  during  the  Price  raid  in  1864,  and  was  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner to  negotiate  Indian  treaties. 

Cushingf,  Caleb  (1800-1879),  graduated  at  Harvard  and  rose  to 
eminence  at  the  Massachusetts  bar.  He  was  a  Representative  from 
Massachusetts  in  Congress  in  1835-43,  having  been  a  Whig  and,  from 
Tyler's  time,  a  Democrat.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  China,  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  In  1853-57  he  was  a  member  of  Pierce's 
Cabinet  as  Attorney-General.  In  i860  he  presided  over  the  Democratic 
National  Convention  which  met  at  Charleston.  His  high  reputation  as 
a  lawyer  led  to  his  appointment  as  U.  S.  counsel  before  the  Geneva 
Tribunal  of  1872,  and  to  his  nomination  by  Grant  as  Chief  Justice  of 


x9S  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  Supreme  Court.  He  failed  of  confirmation  to  the  latter  office,  and 
was  sent  as  U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain  in  1874,  where  he  remained  until 
1877. 

Cusliing,  Frank  H.,  born  in  1857,  was  chosen  curator  of  the  Eth- 
nological Department  of  the  National  Museum  in  1876,  and  from  1879 
to  1884  lived  among  the  Zufii  Indians,  studying  their  language,  habits 
and  history,  the  results  of  which  he  has  published. 

Cusliing,  I^uther  S.  (1803-1856),  from  1832  to  1846  clerk  of  the 
Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives,  was  reporter  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Supreme  Court  decisions  from  1850  to  1856.  He  was  author  of 
"  Cushing's  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice." 

Cusliing,  William  (1732-1810),  Judge  of  the  Massachusetts  Superior 
Court  in  1772,  Chief  Justice  in  1777  and  the  first  Chief  Justice  under 
the  State  Constitution  in  1780,  was  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Su- 
preme Coi;rt  from  1789  to  1810. 

dishing",  William  B.  (1842-1874),  in  1861  captured  the  first  prize 
of  the  war,  and  in  1864  by  extraordinary  boldness  destroyed  the  Confed- 
erate ironclad  "Albemarle."  He  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Fort  Fisher. 

Cusliman,  Charlotte  S.  (1816-1876),  a  noted  American  actress, 
was  born  in  Boston.  She  was  a  very  successful  actress  in  historical 
plays,  and  from  1870  developed  marked  abilities  as  a  dramatic  reader. 

Custer,  George  Armstrong  (1839-1876),  born  in  Ohio,  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War  and  distinguished  himself  at  Gettysburg  as 
commander  of  the  Michigan  brigade,  also  winning  fame  at  Winchester, 
Fisher's  Hill,  Cedar  Creek,  Waynesboro,  Five  Forks  and  Dinwiddie 
Court  House.  In  1876,  being  then  a  general  in  the  regular  army,  he 
was  overwhelmed  by  the  Sioux  Indians  at  the  Little  Big  Horn  River, 
and  his  entire  command  was  slain. 

Custer  Massacre.  On  June  26,  1876,  General  George  A.  Custer, 
with  200  regular  soldiers,  was  sent  in  quest  of  a  band  of  Sioux  Indians 
that  had  broken  away  from  their  Dakota  reservation  and  were  commit- 
ting many  depredations.  Custer  came  suddenly  upon  the  Indians,  2,500 
strong,  commanded  by  Sitting  Bull,  in  the  valley  of  the  Little  Big 
Horn,  and  having  no  chance  to  escape,  a  desperate  battle  ensued,  in 
which  Custer  and  all  of  his  brave  soldiers  were  slaughtered,  not  one 
escaping.  A  monument  has  been  erected  upon  the  site  of  this  great 
tragedy. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


199 


Customs  Revenue.  The  Continental  Congress  desire  to  have  a 
revenue  from  customs,  but  the  States  would  not  all  agree  to  this.  From 
1789  on,  a  great  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  Government  has  been  de- 
rived from  this  source,  about  five-sixths  from  1789  to  1830,  except  in 
war-time,  sometimes  more  than  nine-tenths  in  the  period  from  1837  to 
1861,  and  from  one-half  to  three-fifths  in  the  period  since  1868.  At 
first  amounting  to  about  $3,000,000  per  annum,  customs  have  of  recent 
years  averaged  about  $200,000,000. 

Cynthiana,  Xy.,  burned  during  the  Civil  War  by  the  Confederate 
guerrilla  Morgan,  June  10,  1864.  Morgan  also,  with  2,000  Confederates, 
defeated  600  Federals  under  Burbridge  and  Hobson,  but  was,  June  12, 
defeated  in  return  by  a  superior  force  at  Cynthiana. 


D. 

Dabney's  Mills,  Va.  Here,  during  Grant's  and  Lee's  campaigns 
about  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  in  1865,  there  occurred,  February  6 
and  7,  some  severe  skirmishing  between  Crawford's  division  of  Warren's 
Federal  corps  and  a  Confederate  force  under  Pegram.  The  Federal 
leaders  were  endeavoring  to  lengthen  their  line  toward  Hatcher's  Run 
when  Pegram  fell  upon  them.  The  Confederates  were  defeated  and 
Pegram  was  killed. 

Dabney,  R.  I,.,  see  appendix,  page  481. 

Dacres,  James  R.  (1788-1853),  British  naval  officer,  commanded 
the  "  Guerriere  "  when  it  was  beaten  by  the  "  Constitution,"  August  19, 
181 2.  Later,  commanding  the  "Tiber,"  he  captured  the  "Leo"  in 
March,  1815. 

Dade,  Francis  I*.,  born  in  Virginia,  a  lieutenant,  captain  and,  in 
1828,  a  brevet-major  in  the  U.  S.  army,  was  killed  in  a  treacherous  attack 
of  the  Seminole  Indians,  in  1835,  near  Fort  King,  Florida. 

Dahlgren,  John  Adolph  (1809- 1870),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  at  an 
early  age.  He  became  noted  as  the  designer  of  the  improved  Dahlgren 
cannon.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Navy  Yard  at  Washington.  He  was  naturally  made  chief 
of  the  ordnance  bureau,  was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral,  and  com- 
manded in  the  attack  on  the  Charleston  defenses  in  1863.  His  last  im- 
portant service  was  in  co-operation  with  General  Sherman,  in  the  taking 
of  Savannah,  in  1864. 

Dahlgren,   Ulrie,   son  of  Rear-Admiral  Dahlgren,  born  in  1842, 


200  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Took  a  course  in  civil  engineering  and  the  law,  but  entered  the  Union 
army  in  1862  and  took  charge  of  a  naval  battery  on  Maryland  Heights. 
He  was  General  Siegel's  chief  of  artillery  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  He  lost  a  leg  at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  July,  1863,  and  was  killed  in  a 
raid  of  his  own  planning  to  relieve  the  Union  prisoners  in  Richmond, 
1864. 

Daiquiri,  a  landing-place  on  the  coast  of  Cuba,  twenty  miles  from 
Santiago, where  General  Shafter,  with  twenty  transports,  debarked  a  force 
of  16,000  men  June  22  and  23,  1898,  to  begin  operations  against  Santiago. 
Daiquiri  was  shelled  by  a  convoy  of  American  war-ships  and  the  enemy 
driven  back  into  the  country.  The  landing  was  accomplished  without  a 
single  loss. 

Dale,  Richard  (1756-1826),  was  first  lieutenant  on  the  "Bon 
Homme  Richard,"  and  served  with  Paul  Jones  on  the  "  Alliance"  and 
the  ' '  Ariel. ' '  He  commanded  the  Mediterranean  Squadron  during  the 
troubles  with  Tripoli. 

Dale,  Samuel  (1 772-1841),  a  U.  S.  army  scout  in  1793,  commanded 
a  battalion  against  the  Creeks  in  1814.  He  was  appointed  with  Colonel 
George  S.  Gaines  to  remove  the  Choctaw  Indians  to  their  reservation  on 
the  Arkansas  and  Red  Rivers. 

Dallas,  Alexander  James  (1759-1817),  born  in  Jamaica,  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Pennsylvania  in  1783,  and  was  U.  S.  District  At- 
torney from  1801  to  1814,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
Madison's  Cabinet.  On  his  suggestion  the  Second  National  Bank  was 
incorporated  in  1816,  and  to  his  efforts  is  largly  due  the  financial  success 
of  the  U.  S.  Government  from  1814  to  1817. 

Dallas,  George  Mifflin  (1 792-1864),  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  had  a  training  in  diplomacy  and  law,  was  mayor  of  Philadelphia, 
and  district  attorney.  From  1831  to  1833  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from 
Pennsylvania,  and  was  Attorney-General  of  the  State  in  the  two  suc- 
ceeding years.  In  1837-39  he  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  Russia.  When 
Polk  was  nominated  by  the  Democrats  in  1844,  Dallas  received  the 
second  honor,  as  a  kind  of  protectionist  gift  to  hold  Pennsylvania. 
They  were  elected,  and  Dallas  served  as  Vice-President  1845-49.  I11 
spite  of  his  supposed  protectionist  leanings  Dallas  gave  the  casting  vote 
in  the  Senate  in  favor  of  the  Walker  Tariff  of  1846.  His  last  public 
office  was  that  of  Minister  to  England  in  1856-61. 

Dallas  (Vicinity),  Ga.,  a  four  days'  fight  between  Johnston's  and 
Sherman's  armies,  during  the  latter's  advance  upon  Atlanta  in  1864. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  201 

The  fighting  took  place  May  25  to  29.  The  Confederates,  about  40,000 
strong,  were  under  the  immediate  command  of  Hardee,  and  lay  en- 
trenched about  Dallas.  McPherson  attacked  them  with  20,000  Federals. 
Schofield  was  ordered  to  flank  the  Confederate  right,  but  as  he  made 
this  attempt  Johnston  himself  struck  heavily  upon  Mcpherson's  main 
command.  However,  the  Federals  moved  to  the  left  along  the  Con- 
federate front  and  gained  the  Allatoona  Pass.  Johnston  was  thus  forced 
to  leave  his  intrenchments  and  retire,  May  29. 

Dalton,  Ga.,  is  now  a  railroad  terminus  and  has  a  large  grain  trade. 
A  year  before  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  it  was  an  important  strategical 
position,  and  for  a  while,  during  Sherman's  operations  around  At- 
lanta, was  the  headquarters  of  the  Confederate  army. 

Dana,  Charles  A.  (1819-1897),  from  1848  to  1862  managing  editor 
of  the  New  York  Tribune \  edited  by  Horace  Greeley  ;  was  appointed 
Assistant  Secretary  of  War  in  1863,  and  in  1867-1868  organized  and  be- 
came editor  of  the  New  York  Sun. 

Dana,  Francis  (1743-1811),  a  Massachusetts  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1776,  was  Congressman  in  1778  and  secretary  to 
the  embassy  of  John  Adams  in  1779.  He  was  Minister  to  Russia  from 
1780  to  1783.  In  1785  he  was  made  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  Annapolis  Convention  in 
1786,  and  Chief  Justice  of  Massachusetts  from  1791  to  1806. 

Daniel,  John  "W.,  Senator  and  orator,  born  in  Virginia  in  1842,  a 
Confederate  adjutant-general,  was  Representative  from  Virginia  from 
1885  to  1887,  and  Senator  from  1887  to  the  present  time  (1900). 

Danites,  a  secret  organization  among  the  Mormons  who  were  called 
also  the  "  Destroying  Angels."  Many  crimes  were  reputed  to  them  in 
Utah,  chiefly  of  murdering  apostates  and  enemies  of  the  Mormon 
Church.  They  have  also  been  charged  with  inspiring  or  perpetrating 
the  Mountain  Meadow  Massacre. 

Daniel,  William,  of  Maryland,  was  born  in  1826.  He  was  promi- 
nent in  Maryland  prohibition  movements,  a  delegate  to  the  State  con- 
vention for  the  emancipation  of  slaves  in  1864,  and  a  candidate  for 
Vice-President  on  the  Prohibition  ticket  in  1884.     Died  1897. 

Darbytown  Road,  Va.  Along  this  highway  there  occurred,  during 
the  campaign  around  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  three  brief  fights  be- 
tween the  Federals  and  Confederates.  In  the  first,  July  29,  1864, 
Hancock's  corps  of  Grant's  army,  having  been  sent  to  co-operate  in  the 
mine  explosion  of  Petersburg,  met  and  defeated  a  large  force  of  Con- 


202  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

federates,  Gregg's  and  Kautz's  cavalry  bearing  the  brunt  of  the  fight. 
Again,  October  7,  Kautz's  cavalry  was  defeated  with  heavy  loss  along 
the  Darbytown  road  ;  many  Federals  were  killed  and  wounded  and 
nine  pieces  of  artillery  were  lost.  October  13,  Butler  endeavored  to 
drive  the  Confederates  from  some  new  works  he  was  constructing  along 
this  road.  The  Tenth  Corps  took  the  chief  part  in  this  engagement 
and  were  badly  defeated,  so  Butler  desisted  from  the  work. 

Dare,  Virginia,  born  in  1587  at  Roanoke,  Va.  (N.  C),  was  the  first 
English  child  born  in  the  New  World.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
John  White,  Governor  of  the  colony  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in 

1587. 

Darien,  The  Scheme  of,  was  one  of  the  most  disastrous  speculations 
of  which  history  gives  any  account.  The  enterprise  was  projected  by 
William  Paterson,  founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  who  organized  the 
Darien  Company,  in  1695,  under  a  charter  obtained  by  act  of  the  Scottish 
Parliament  sanctioned  by  royal  authority.  The  object  was  to  establish 
a  colony  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  so  form  a 
commercial  entrepot  between  the  eastern  and  the  western  hemisphere. 
Scotland  at  the  time  had  very  little  foreign  trade,  and  the  scheme  for  its 
enlargement  proposed  by  Paterson  met  with  so  much  favor  that  the  com- 
pany was  easily  promoted.  The  English  Parliament,  however,  actuated  by 
jealous  rivalry,  opposed  the  scheme,  and  finally  gave  it  unequivocal-con- 
demnation. The  opposition,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  fitting  out  of 
five  ships  with  1,200  colonists,  who  set  sail  from  Leith,  for  Panama,  July 
25,  1698.  They  reached  their  destination  in  four  months  and  bargained 
with  the  natives  for  a  strip  of  country,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  New 
Caledonia,  and  fixed  the  site  of  what  was  to  be  the  capital  city,  New 
Edinburgh,  where  they  built  a  fort  called  New  St.  Andrew.  Having 
established  themselves,  the  colonists  issued  a  proclamation  of  perfect 
freedom  of  trade  and  religious  toleration  to  all  who  would  join  them. 
England  refused  to  hold  intercourse  with  the  colonists,  who  soon  fell 
under  the  deadly  influence  of  the  climate,  and  as  supplies  could  not  be 
obtained  from  home  the  colonists  died  so  rapidly  from  disease  and 
starvation  that  at  the  end  of  one  year  only  thirty  survived  to  reach  home 
through  Spanish  assistance. 

Dartmoor  Massacre,  a  massacre  of  a  number  of  American  sailors 
captured  during  the  Revolution  and  confined  in  Dartmoor  Prison,  in 
Devonshire,  England.  It  occurred  April  6,  1815.  In  the  prison  were 
6,000  Americans  and  10,000  Frenchmen.  The  former  becoming  im- 
patient for  their  liberty,  since  the  war  was  then  long  ended,  attempted 
to  escape.     They  were  set  upon  by  the  guards  and  a  number  of  them 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


203 


were  killed.     An  investigation  of  the  matter  was  made  and  the  British 
Government  offered  ample  satisfaction. 

Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H.,  was  founded  by  Congrega- 
tionalists,  and  chartered  in  1769.  It  is  famous  in  constitutional  history 
for  having  supplied  the  test  case  as  to  whether  the  State  Legislature 
had  the  power  to  dissolve  private  trusts.  It  originated  out  of  a  school 
for  Indians  established  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  by  Rev.  Eleazar  Wheelock. 
His  son,  John  Wheelock,  succeeded  him  in  the  presidency.  Daniel 
Webster  was  graduated  here  in  1802.  The  Medical  School  was  founded 
in  1797,  the  Chandler  Scientific  School  in  1852,  the  New  Hampshire 
College  of  Agriculture  in  1868. 

Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution,  a  society  of  the  female 
descendants  of  distinguished  soldiers,  sailors  and  patriots  of  the  Revo- 
lution, organized  at  Washington  October  11,  1890.  There  are  now 
twenty-odd  State  branches. 

David,  William  R.  (1756-1820),  born  in  England,  arived  in  Amer- 
ica in  1763.  He  commanded  at  Stony  Ferry  in  1779,  and  in  1781  was 
appointed  commissary-general  of  the  Southern  army.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787  from  North  Carolina,  and 
of  the  special  embassy  to  France  in  1799.  He  was  prominent  among 
the  North  Carolina  Federalists. 

Davie,  Wm,  R.,  see  appendix,  page  481. 

Daviess,  Joseph  H.  (1774-1811),  was  killed  at  Tippecanoe.  While 
U.  S.  Attorney  for  Kentucky  he  advocated  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  in 
1806  on  a  charge  of  unauthorized  warfare  which  could  not  be  sustained 
and  brought  him  into  disfavor. 

Davis,  Charles  H.  (1807-1877),  founder  of  the  American  Nautical 
Almanac,  was  connected  with  the  U.  S.  navy  from  1823  to  1867.  In 
1862  he  was  chief  of  the  board  of  navigation,  and  commanded  the  Mis- 
sissippi flotilla,  and  was  superintendent  of  the  naval  observatory  from 
1865  to  1867  and  from  1870  to  1877. 

Davis,  Cushman  A.,  see  appendix,  page  481. 

Davis,  David  (1815-1886),  jurist,  graduated  at  Kenyon  College  in 
Ohio,  and  settled  to  the  practice  of  law  at  Bloomington,  111.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Illinois  Legislature,  a  State  judge,  and  an  intimate  friend 
of  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  National 
Convention  at  Chicago  in  i860.  President  Lincoln  appointed  him  an 
Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  where  he  remained  from  1862 
to  1877,  being  in  the  latter  j^ear  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission. 
His  reform  tendencies  had,  meanwhile,  made  him  the  candidate  for 
President,  in  1872,  of  the  Labor  Reform  party,  and  brought  him  some 


204  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

votes  at  the  Liberal  Republican  Convention  in  the  same  year.  In  1877- 
1883  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Illinois,  and  at  one  time  president  of 
the  Senate.  While  in  that  body  he  was  classed  as  an  Independent, 
though  he  acted  frequently  with  the  Democrats. 

Davis,  Henry  Winter  (1817-1865),  was  born  in  Maryland.  He 
attained  considerable  celebrity  as  a  lawyer,  and  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  as  a  Democrat,  serving  from  1855  to  1861,  and 
decided  a  tie  vote  for  Speaker,  in  1859,  by  voting  for  Mr.  Pennington, 
the  Republican  candidate.  He  was  again  a  member  of  Congress  from 
1863  to  1865,  and  served  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign 
Affairs.  Though  representing  a  slave  State,  he  was  an  ardent  advocate 
of  emancipation  and  negro  suffrage,  but  opposed  the  assumption  of 
extraordinary  powers  by  the  executive. 

Davis,  Jefferson  (June  3,  1808 — December  6, 1889),  President  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1828.  He  saw  some  service  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  but  re- 
signed from  the  army  and  became  a  cotton  planter  in  Mississippi.  He 
represented  that  State  in  Congress  in  1845-46,  but  left  Congress  to  take 
part  as  colonel  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  the  storming  of  Monterey  and  the 
battle  of  Buena  Vista  he  distinguished  himself  and  was  straightway 
chosen  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  served  1847-51  and  1857-61.  In 
185 1  he  ran  unsuccessfully  as  the  States-rights  candidate  for  Governor 
of  Mississippi.  In  President  Pierce's  administration  Mr.  Davis  was  the 
Secretary  of  War  1853-57.  He  had  become  one  of  the  Southern  leaders, 
received  some  votes  for  the  Democratic  nomination  for  President  in 
i860,  and  in  January,  1861,  he  left  the  U.  S.  Senate.  He  was  thereupon 
elected  provisional  President  of  the  Confederacy  February  9,  1861,  and 
was  inaugurated  February  18.  In  November  of  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  President  and  was  inaugurated  February  22,  1862.  From  the 
second  year  of  the  wrar  till  the  close  many  of  his  acts  were  severely  criti- 
cised in  the  South  itself.  Many  Southerners  admit  that  President  Davis' 
actions,  especially  his  interference  in  military  matters,  impaired  the 
prospects  of  success.  An  instance  in  point  was  his  removal  of  General 
J.  E.  Johnston  from  command  in  1864.  Early  in  1865  he  conducted  un- 
successful negotiations  for  peace.  On  the  second  of  April  the  successes 
of  Grant's  army  obliged  President  Davis  to  leave  Richmond  ;  he  took 
the  train  for  Danville,  and  after  consultation  proceeded  southward  and 
was  captured  by  the  Federals  near  Irwinswille,  Ga.,  May  10,  1865.  Un- 
til 1867  be  was  confined  as  a  prisoner  in  Fort  Monroe.  He  was  in  1866 
indicted  for  treason,  released  on  bail  the  following  year,  and  the  trial 
was  dropped.     He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Memphis  and  later 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  205 

in  Mississippi,  dying  in  New  Orleans.     He  was  the  author  of  "  Rise  and 
Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government,"  two  volumes. 

Davis,  Jefferson  C.  (1 828-1 879),  Federal  general,  after  serving 
during  the  Mexican  War,  was  in  Fort  Sumter  at  the  time  of  the  bom- 
bardment in  1861,  served  with  distinction  at  Pea  Ridge  and  Stone  River, 
and  commanded  a  corps  in  Sherman's  march  through  Georgia. 

Davis,  John  (1550-1605),  an  English  navigator,  in  1585,  1586  and 
1587  made  attempts  to  discover  a  northwest  passage,  penetrating  as  frr 
as  the  strait  which  bears  his  name. 

Davis,  John  (1 787-1854),  was  a  National  Republican  Congressman 
from  1825  to  1834,  when  he  became  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  From 
1835  to  1840  he  was  a  U.  S.  Senator,  and  opposed  the  administrations  of 
Jackson  and  Van  Buren.  After  again  serving  as  Governor  from  1840  to 
1841,  he  was  returned  to  the  Senate  from  1845  to  l853-  He  opposed  the 
Mexican  War  and  the  introduction  and  extension  of  slavery,  and  re- 
ceived the  appellation  of  ' '  Honest  John  Davis. ' ' 

Davis,  John  C.  Bancroft,  jurist,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1822.  From  1869  to  1871,  from  1873  to  I^75,  and  in  1881  he  was  Assistant 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States.  In  187 1  he  represented  the 
U.  S.  Government  in  the  arbitration  of  the  "Alabama"  claims  at 
Geneva,  having  been  secretary  of  the  commission  concluding  the  Treaty 
of  Washington.  From  1877  to  1881  he  was  a  Judge  of  the  U.  S.  Court 
of  Claims,  and  in  1883  became  reporter  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Davis,  John  W.  (1 799-1859) ,  was  Speaker  of  the  Indiana  Legislature 
in  1832  and  a  Democratic  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1835  to  1837,  1839  to 
1841  and  from  1843  to  1847.  He  was  Speaker  of  the  House  from  1845  to 
1847,  and  U.  S.  Commissioner  to  China  from  1848  to  1850. 

Dawes,  Henry  I,.,  born  in  1816,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1853.  He  was  a  Representative  from 
Massachusetts  from  1857  to  1873,  and  succeeded  Charles  Sumner  in  the 
Senate  in  1875  and  served  till  1893.  He  was  for  a  time  chairman  of  the 
Ways  and  Means  Committee  in  the  House,  and  has  been  prominent  in 
legislation  for  the  tariff  and  for  Indian  education. 

Day,  William  R.,  lawyer,  born  in  Ohio  in  1849.  Became  Assistant 
Secretary  of  State  in  McKinley's  Cabinet  in  1897,  and  succeeded  John 
Sherman  as  Secretary  of  State  in  1898.  President  of  the  Paris  Peace 
Commission.     In  1899  was  appointed  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge. 

Daye,  Stephen,  an  English  printer  who  in  1638  brought  over  a  font 


206  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

of  type  and  printing  outfit,  and  in  the  following  year  set  up  his  press  at 
Cambridge.  His  first  publication  was  an  almanac  for  New  England, 
issued  in  1639.  The  next  year  Thomas  Welde  and  John  Eliot,  two 
ministers  of  Roxbury,  and  Richard  Mather,  of  Dorchester,  translated  the 
Hebrew  Psalms  into  English  verse,  making  a  volume  of  three  hundred 
pages.     This  was  the  first  book  printed  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Dayton,  Jonathan  (1760-1824),  was  born  in  New  Jersey.  In  1776 
he  entered  the  Continental  army,  in  which  he  held  numerous  commis- 
sions, and  under  Lafayette  commanded  at  Yorktown.  In  1783  he  was 
elected  to  the  Legislature,  and  was  made  Speaker  in  1790.  In  1787  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  which  framed  the  Federal  Constitution. 
He  was  elected  U.  S.  Congressman  from  New  Jersey,  serving  from  1791 
to  1799,  being  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  from  1795  to  1799,  and  was 
a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1799  to  1805.  A  friend  of  Burr,  he  had  a  part  in 
Burr's  conspiracy  of  1807. 

Dayton,  William  1,.  (1807-1864),  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  New  Jersey 
from  1842  to  1 85 1,  was  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1856  on  the 
Republican  ticket,  and  was  Attorney-General  for  New  Jersey  from  1857 
to  1 86 1,  when  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  France,  where  he  served 
during  the  Civil  War,  till  his  death. 

Deane,  Silas  (1737-1789),  born  in  Groton,  Conn.,  died  in  Deal, 
England.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  Committee  of  Cor- 
respondence, and  afterward  a  Representative  in  the  Continental  Congress. 
In  1776  he  was  sent  to  France  to  purchase  supplies  for  the  Confederacy. 
Vergennes,  the  French  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  referred  him  to 
Beaumarchais,  a  secret  agent  of  the  French  Government,  and  with  him 
Deane  negotiated.  He  was  accused  of  extravagance  and  dishonesty, 
chiefly  by  his  colleague,  Arthur  Lee.  Deane,  Lee  and  Franklin  nego- 
tiated treaties  of  amity  and  commerce  with  France,  which  were  signed 
February  6,  1778.  Deane  was  recalled  the  same  year  at  the  instigation 
of  Lee.  Congress^  refused  him  a  hearing  for  some  time  and  finally 
required  a  full  statement.  Returning  to  France  for  the  necessary  papers, 
he  found  himself  unpopular  there,  and  had  to  retire  to  Holland.  He 
died  just  as  he  was  re-embarking  from  England  for  America  in  1789. 

Dearborn,  Fort  (Chicago),  was  evacuated  August  15,  1812,  by 
orders  of  General  Hull  ;  burned  next  day.  The  Americans  while 
retreating  were  attacked  by  hostile  Indians,  and  two-thirds  of  their 
number  massacred,  including  twelve  children.  The  survivors  sur- 
rendered on  promise  of  safety,  were  taken  to  Fort  Mackinaw,  and  finally 
were  sent  back  to  their  homes. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  207 

Dearborn,  Henry  (1751-1829),  a  captain  at  Bunker  Hill,  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battles  of  Stillwater,  Saratoga  and  Monmouth.  He 
became  major-general  in  1795.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1793 
to  1797,  and  Secretary  of  War  in  Jefferson's  Cabinet  from  1801  to  1809. 
From  1822  to  1824  he  was  Minister  to  Portugal. 

Deatonsville,  Va.  Near  this  place  the  Confederate  army  under 
Ivee,  while  in  full  retreat  from  Petersburg,  at  the  close  of  the  last 
campaign  about  that  city  and  Richmond,  was  struck  April  6,  1864,  by 
Crook,  commanding  the  left  of  Sheridan's  pursuing  forces.  Crook's 
forces  were  repulsed  by  superior  numbers,  but  his  assault  enabled  Custer 
to  join  him  and  attack  Lee  a  little  further  on  at  Sailor's  Creek.  E  well's 
forces  were  cut  off  and  compelled  to  surrender. 

De  Bow,  James  D.  B.  (1820-1867),  of  South  Carolina,  statistician, 
a  voluminous  writer  of  magazine  articles  upon  economics  and  finance, 
was  appointed  Superintendent  of  the  Census  from  1853  to  1855. 

Debt.  At  the  installation  of  the  new  Government  in  1789,  the  foreign 
debt  amounted  to  $13, 000,000,  the  domestic  debt  to  $42,000,000,  and 
Hamilton  also  persuaded  the  Congress  to  assume  State  debts  contracted 
in  the  Revolution  to  the  amount  of  $21,500,000  more.  It  was  then 
funded.  In  1796  it  amounted  in  the  total  to  $83,800,000.  It  then  began 
to  be  reduced  and,  though  raised  by  the  expenditures  for  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  was  brought  down  to  $45,200,000  in  1812  by  the  skillful 
management  of  Hamilton  and  Gallatin  successively.  The  War  of  181 2 
brought  it  up  to  $127,000,000  in  1816,  but  the  abounding  prosperity  of 
the  country  enabled  the  Government  to  pay  it  all  off,  virtually,  by  1835. 
It  then  grew  again.  The  Mexican  War  brought  it  up  from  $15,600,000  to 
$68,300,000,  whence  it  again  declined  to  $28,700,000  in  1857.  The  Civil 
War  required  not  only  heavy  and  almost  indiscriminate  taxation  but 
enormous  loans,  so  that  the  debt  on  the  thirty-first  of  August,  1865, 
amounted  to  $2,845,000,000.  Successful  efforts  to  refund  at  lower  rates 
of  interest,  together  with  the  prosperity  of  the  country  and  the  great 
revenue  from  customs,  enabled  the  debt  to  be  reduced  to  $2,000,000,000 
in  1878,  if  cash  in  the  Treasury  be  subtracted,  $1,500,000,000  in  1883,  and 
to  $1,000,000,000  in  1889.  On  November  1,  1893,  the  total  debt,  less 
cash  in  the  Treasury,  amounted  to  $820, 109,339.  Since  that  date  several 
issues  of  bonds  have  been  made  by  which  the  debt  has  been  consid- 
erably increased. 

Debts,  British.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  many  Ameri- 
cans owed  money  to  British  citizens,  merchants  and  others.  The 
Treaty  of  1783  provided  for  their  payment.     But  many  obstacles  were 


208  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

thrown  in  the  way,  State  governments  having  provided,  or  even  pro- 
viding after  the  ratification  of  the  treaty,  that  they  might  be  paid  into 
the  treasury  of  the  State,  which  would  then  refuse  to  entertain  suits  on 
the  part  of  the  creditors.  The  apprehension  that  a  Federal  judiciary 
would  compel  these  debts  to  be  paid  was  one  cause  of  opposition  to  the 
Constitution  of  1787.  In  1796,  in  the  case  of  Ware  vs.  Hylton,  the  Su- 
preme Court  decided  that  such  debts  must  be  paid. 

Decatur,  Stephen  (1779-1820),  was  born  in  Maryland.  He  began 
service  in  the  U.  S.  navy  on  the  "  United  States  "  in  1798,  and  in  1803 
commanded  the  « '  Argus, ' '  and  later  the  ' '  Enterprise. "  In  1804  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  successfully  destroying  the  "Philadelphia," 
which  had  fallen  into  the  possession  of  Tripoli.  In  1812,  on  the 
"  United  States,"  while  commanding  an  Atlantic  squadron,  he  captured 
he  British  ship  "Macedonian,"  and  in  1814,  after  a  stubborn  battle, 
was  compelled  to  surrender  the  unseaworthy  ship  "President."  In 
1815,  with  ten  vessels,  he  humbled  the  Barbary  powers,  and  concluded  a 
treaty  by  which  tribute  was  abolished  and  prisoners  and  property  were 
restored.  He  was  one  of  the  navy  commissioners  from  1816  to  1820, 
when  he  was  killed  by  Commodore  Barron  in  a  duel. 

Declaration  of  Independence.  Absolute  separation  from  Great 
Britain  was  not  at  first  contemplated  by  the  colonies.  New  England 
favored  it,  but  the  Southern  States  were  opposed.  The  transfer  of  the 
war  to  the  southward  in  May  and  June,  1776,  brought  them  to  this  view. 
The  North  Carolina  Convention  took  the  first  step  toward  independence 
by  a  resolution  ' '  to  concur  with  those  in  the  other  colonies  in  declaring 
independence,"  April  22,  1776.  Virginia,  May  17,  1776,  prepared  the 
title  of  the  document  by  directing  her  Representatives  to  propose  in 
Congress  a  "Declaration  of  Independence."  Such  a  resolution  was 
offered  by  Richard  Henry  Dee,  June  7,  1776.  This  resolution  was 
adopted  July  2.  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Roger  Sherman  and  Robert  R.  Livingston  were  the  committee  appointed 
to  draft  the  Declaration.  The  draft  was  formulated  almost  entirely  by 
Jefferson.  Before  July  1,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  New  Jersey  had 
instructed  their  delegates  to  vote  against  the  Declaration.  This  instruc- 
tion was  rescinded,  South  Carolina  came  over  to  the  majority,  and  Del- 
aware's vote,  at  first  divided,  was  in  the  affirmative.  The  Declaration 
was,  therefore,  adopted,  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  twelve  States,  New 
Vork  alone  not  voting,  July  4,  1776.  The  New  York  Convention  after- 
ward ratified  the  Declaration.  The  engrossed  copy  was  signed  on  Au- 
gust 2.  The  Declaration  sets  forth  the  rights  of  man  and  of  the  colonists, 
enumerates  their  grievances  against  the  British  Government,  and  de- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  209 

clares  "that  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free 
and  independent  States." 

Declaration  of  Independence,  Signers  of.  New  Hampshire  : 
Josiah  Bartlett,  William  Whipple,  Matthew  Thornton.  Massachusetts  : 
John  Hancock,  Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams,  Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry.  Rhode  Island:  Stephen  Hopkins,  William  Ellery. 
Connecticut:  Roger  Sherman,  Samuel  Huntingdon,  William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott.  New  York  :  William  Floyd,  Philip  Livingston,  Fran- 
cis Lewis,  Lewis  Morris.  New  Jersey  :  Richard  Stockton,  John  Wither- 
spoon,  Francis  Hopkinson,  John  Hart,  Abraham  Clark.  Pennsylvania  : 
Robert  Morris,  Benjamin  Rush,  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Morton, 
George  Clymer,  James  Smith,  George  Taylor,  James  Wilson,  George 
Ross.  Delaware:  Csesar  Rodney,  George  Read,  Thomas  M'Kean. 
Maryland :  Samuel  Chase,  William  Paca,  Thomas  Stone,  Charles  Car- 
roll, of  Carrollton.  Virginia  :  George  Wythe,  Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  Benjamin  Harrison,  Thomas  Nelson,  Jr.,  Francis 
Lightfoot  Lee,  Carter  Braxton.  North  Carolina :  William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes,  John  Penn.  South  Carolina :  Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Hey  ward,  Jr.,  Thomas  Lynch,  Jr.,  Arthur  Middleton.  Georgia  : 
Button  Gwinnett,  Lyman  Hall,  George  Walton. 

Declaration  of  Rights.  In  1765  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  pub- 
lished a  "  Declaration  of  Rights  and  Grievances  of  the  Colonists  of 
America,"  in  which  they  protested  against  the  Stamp  Act  and  all  efforts 
to  tax  them  in  a  parliament  in  which  they  could  not  be  represented, 
and  claimed  for  themselves  all  the  rights  of  British  subjects.  A 
similar  declaration  of  rights  was  issued  by  the  Continental  Congress  of 
1774,  adapted  to  meet  also  the  aggressive  acts  which  had  more  recently 
been  passed  by  Parliament.  Another  such  was  included  in  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence.  For  the  statements  of  the  rights  of  the  individ- 
ual as  over  against  his  government  which  accompanied  most  of  the 
new  Constitutions  of  his  period,  see  Bills  of  Rights. 

Declaratory  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Parliament,  March  7,  1766, 
vindicating  the  previous  enactments  affecting  the  colonies,  and  declar- 
ing that  the  king,  with  the  advice  of  Parliament,  had  full  power  to 
make  laws  binding  America  in  any  cases  whatsoever.  This  law  accom- 
panied the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act. 

Decoration  Day,  known  as  "  Memorial  Day  "  in  the  Southern 

States.     The  custom  that  led  up  to  it  originated  in  the  South  before 

the  close  of  the  Civil  War.     Early  in  the  spring  of  each  year  the 

Southern   women  were  in  the  habit  of  decorating  the  graves  of  their 

Vol.  V.— 14 


aio  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

dead  soldiers  with  flowers,  and  thus  an  unwritten  law  fixed  May  30  as 
the  day  of  observance.  Similar  observances  had  been  inaugurated  in 
the  North  with  no  especial  unanimity.  May  5,  1868,  General  John  A. 
Logan,  then  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic, 
issued  an  order  fixing  May  30  of  that  year  for  strewing  with  flowers 
the  graves  of  dead  soldiers.  There  has  been  no  Federal  legislation  re- 
garding Decoration  Day,  but  many  States  have  made  it  a  legal  holiday. 

Deep  Bottom,  Va.,  selected  by  Butler  during  the  campaigning 
around  Richmond  and  Petersburg  in  1864  as  a  position  from  which  to 
threaten  Lee.  A  lodgment  was  effected  there  June  21,  and  Foster  was 
there  posted  with  a  strong  force.  Lee,  fearing  this  position,  made 
several  ineffectual  attempts  to  secure  it,  and  at  last  Grant  ordered  a 
counter  attack  on  August  15  and  18.  Hancock  turned  the  Confederates' 
advance  position,  while  Foster  feinted  an  attack  upon  his  front.  The 
plan  worked  so  successfully  that  Miles'  brigade  outflanked  the  Con- 
federates' outpost  and  carried  away  four  guns.  Lee  fell  back  to 
Bailey's  Creek,  but  continued  to  hold  his  strong  defensive  work  at 
Chapin's  Bluff. 

Deerfield,  Mass.,  was  first  settled  in  1670.  During  King  Philip's 
War  a  company  under  Captain  Lothrop  was  attacked  at  Bloody  Brook, 
in  Deerfield,  by  savages  in  ambush  and  almost  totally  destroyed. 
Deerfield  was  sacked  by  French  and  Indians  in  1704  and  many  of  the 
inhabitants  killed. 

Delancey,  Oliver  (1708-1785),  brother  of  Governor  James  De- 
lancey,  commanded  the  New  York  troops  in  Abercrombie's  campaign 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  during  the  Revolutionary  War  was 
commander  of  a  brigade  of  Tories.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  retired 
to  England. 

Delancey,  Oliver  (1752-1822),  son  of  the  preceding,  an  officer  in 
the  British  army,  served  with  distinction  throughout  the  American 
war,  and  finally  became  full  general  in  the  British  service. 

Delano,  Columbus,  born  1809,  member  of  Congress  from  Ohio,  was 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Grant's  Cabinet  from  1870  to  1875. 

Delaware.  In  1631  the  Dutch  from  New  Netherland  founded  a 
settlement  in  what  is  now  Delaware,  but  it  proved  temporary.  In  1638 
the  Swedish  West  India  Company  settled  a  colony  on  the  site  of  Wil- 
mington. The  colony  of  New  Sweden,  lying  along  the  shores  of  Dela- 
ware River  and  Bay,  became  involved  in  quarrels  with  the  neighboring 
settlements  of  the  Dutch,  who  claimed  the  region.     In  1655  Governor 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  211 

Stuyvesant  conquered  the  region  for  the  Dutch.  In  1664  it  fell,  with 
all  New  Netherland,  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  William  Penn  in 
1682  obtained  possession  of  what  is  now  Delaware,  and  for  twenty  years 
it  was  governed  as  a  part  of  Pennsylvania,  except  from  1691  to  1693. 
In  1703  the  "  territories  "  or  "  three  lower  counties  on  the  Delaware  " 
obtained  recognition  as  a  separate  colony,  with  an  assembly  of  its  own, 
though  the  proprietary  always  appointed  the  same  man  Governor  of 
both  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware.  Delaware  framed  its  first  Constitution 
as  a  State  in  1776.  On  December  7,  1787,  Delaware  ratified  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  and  was  the  first  State  to  do  so.  The 
vote  in  convention  was  unanimous.  In  1792  a  second  State  Constitution 
was  established.  That  of  1831,  the  last  made,  differs  little  from  this. 
Up  to  1850  the  State  was  usually  Federalist  and  Whig,  since  then  it  has 
usually  been  Democratic.  Though  a  slave  State  it  took  no  part  in  se- 
cession.    The  population,  which  in  1790  was  59,096,  in  1890  was  168,493. 

Delaware,  Crossing  of  the.  On  Christmas  night,  1776,  after  a 
period  of  discouragement,  Washington  made  his  way  across  the  River 
Delaware  through  the  floating  ice,  and  on  the  next  da}T,  at  the  head  of 
2,400  men,  surprised,  attacked  and  captured  a  force  of  1,000  British 
troops  (Hessian  mercenaries)  under  Rahl. 

Delawares,  an  Indian  tribe,  a  branch  of  the  Algonquin  family, 
who,  when  the  whites  first  came  to  the  Delaware  River,  were  found 
dwelling  near  it.  Penn  bought  much  land  of  them.  At  first  a  peace- 
able tribe,  they  were  largely  under  the  control  of  the  Five  Nations. 
Later,  they  became  warlike,  and  had  a-  part  in  the  war  with  Pontiac. 
In  1774  they  received  a  signal  defeat.  After  1768  there  were  none  east 
of  the  Alleghanies.  The  Christian  Delawares,  converts  of  the  Mora- 
vians, were  largely  massacred  by  the  Americans  at  Gnadenhiitten,  near 
the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  From  Ohio  the  tribe  emigrated  to 
Missouri  in  181S,  in  1829  into  Kansas,  and  in  1868  into  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, having  now  become  almost  completely  civilized. 

Delawarr,  Thomas  West,  I,ord,  a  man  of  noble  and  philan- 
thropic character,  was  appointed  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1609,  and 
administered  the  colony  with  success  until  161 1.  In  that  year  he 
entered  the  river  that  bears  his  name.     He  died  in  1618. 

Delfthaven,  a  small  town  in  South  Holland,  port  of  Delft,  is  famous 
in  American  history  as  the  place  at  which  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  embarked 
on  board  the  "  Speedwell  "  for  Southampton,  July  22,  1620. 

De  Lome,  Dupuy,  Spanish  Minister  to  the  United  States  from 


2i2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

1893  to  1898,  when  he  resigned  in  consequence  of  the  friction  caused  by 
an  indiscreet  letter  written  by  him  to  a  Spanish  agent. 

De  I/Ong,  George  W.  (1844-1881),  a  lieutenant-commander  in  the 
United  States  navy,  commanded  the  "  Jeannette  "  in  her  Arctic  voyage 
via  Behring  Strait.  His  vessel  being  crushed  in  the  ice,  he  made  a  long 
and  adventurous  journey  to  the  Siberian  mainland  and  up  the  Lena 
Delta,  but  died  of  exposure  and  starvation  when  almost  within  reach  of 
help. 

Democracy.  Democracy,  though  one  of  the  foremost  elements  in 
American  constitutional  life,  has  grown  up  entirely  outside  the  Consti- 
tution. The  Constitution  leaves  the  suffrage  to  be  prescribed  entirely 
by  the  States.  An  important  landmark  in  its  history,  in  the  Federal 
Government,  is  the  inauguration  of  Jackson  in  1829.  He  was  felt  to  be 
the  people's  candidate,  and  his  election  was  regarded  as  their  triumph. 
From  this  time  on  American  Democracy  was  recognized  as  the  perma- 
nent and  characteristic  system  of  politics  in  the  United  States.  With  this 
has  gone  a  liberal  policy  in  regard  to  naturalization  and  immigration. 

Democratic  Party,  historically  the  most  important  of  American 
political  parties,  having  been  in  continuous  existence  for  fifty  years. 
The  rise  of  such  a  party  as  soon  as  national  politics  began  under  the 
new  Constitution,  was  natural.  The  love  of  individual  liberty,  rather 
than  strong  government,  was  native  in  the  minds  of  most  Americans. 
Those  who  felt  this  most  strongly  would  be  likely  to  look  with  appre- 
hension upon  the  Federal  Government,  and  the  possibility  of  its  en- 
croaching upon  the  States  under  cover  of  the  new  Federal  Constitution. 
They  were  therefore  likely  to  be  advocates  of  strict  construction  of  the 
Constitution  and  of  States'  rights.  To  these  elements  of  party  feeling, 
which  had  drawn  the  Anti-Federalists  together  in  1788,  was  added  a  few 
years  later  a  strong  sympathy  of  many  Americans  with  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  desire  that  the  government  should  aid  France  in 
her  contest  with  England.  Thomas  Jefferson  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  party  drawn  together  by  agreement  in  these  sentiments  and  led 
them  in  opposition  to  the  Federalists.  The  party  took  the  name  of 
Democratic-Republican,  still  its  official  title.  Before  Monroe's  admin- 
istration its  members  were  more  commonly  called  Republicans,  since 
then  most  commonly  Democrats.  From  the  first  the  party  was  strong- 
est in  the  Southern  States.  From  its  origin  in  1792  to  1801,  it  was  in 
opposition.  In  1798  and  1799,  upon  the  passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedi- 
tion laws,  it  took  strong  ground  for  States'  rights  in  the  Kentucky  and 
Virginia  Resolutions.  The  election  of  Jefferson  in  1801  brought  it  into 
power.    The  chief  tenets  of  the  party  were,  belief  in  freedom  of  re- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  213 

ligion,  of  politics,  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  in  popular  rule,  in 
peace,  in  economical  government,  in  the  utmost  possible  restriction 
of  the  sphere  of  government,  in  hospitality  to  immigrants,  and  in 
the  avoidance  of  foreign  complications.  Placed  in  control  of  the 
government,  the  majority  of  the  party  drifted  away  from  its  self -con- 
structionist ground,  and  supported  measures  of  a  nationalizing  char- 
acter. After  the  War  of  18 12  the  Federalist  party  went  out  of  exist- 
ence, and  the  Democratic  party  had  complete  possession  of  the  field. 
In  1820  Monroe  was  re-elected  without  opposition.  But  opposing 
tendencies  in  the  nation  and  in  the  party  were  already  showing  them- 
selves, and  preparing  the  way  for  a  new  party  division,  between  the 
Whigs,  advocates  of  protection  and  other  nationalizing  measures, 
and  those  Democrats  who  held  to  the  old  program  of  States'  rights 
and  free  trade  and  restricted  government.  With  the  accession  of 
Jackson  in  1829,  new  social  strata  came  into  power  in  the  Democratic 
party,  the  widening  of  the  suffrage  giving  it  a  more  popular  character. 
Managed  by  skillful  politicians,  not  without  the  aid  of  the  "spoils 
system,"  the  party  won  every  Presidential  election  but  two  (1840,  1848) 
from  this  time  to  i860,  destroyed  the  U.  S.  Bank,  annexed  Texas,  and 
carried  the  country  through  the  war  with  Mexico.  But  meanwhile 
the  slavery  question,  coming  into  increasing  prominence,  was  gradually 
forcing  a  division  between  the  Democrats  of  the  South  and  the  great 
body  of  those  in  the  North,  who  were  unwilling  to  go  so  far  in  the 
protection  of  slavery  by  national  authority  as  was  desired  by  their 
Southern  allies.  The  final  split  came  in  the  nominating  convention  of 
i860.  Two  candidates  were  nominated,  Lincoln  and  the  Republicans 
won  the  election,  and  the  Civil  War  broke  out.  Though  many  "  War 
Democrats  "  aided  the  administration  in  preserving  the  Union,  the 
party  was  discredited  in  the  eyes  of  many  by  its  previous  connection 
with  the  Southern  leaders  and  the  pro-slavery  cause,  and  won  no  Presi- 
dential election  till  that  of  1884,  when  in  the  minds  of  many  the  war 
issues  were  extinct  and  economic  questions  had  taken  their  place.  De- 
feated in  1888,  it  was  again  successful  in  1892.  At  present  the  party  is 
hardly  more  strict  constructionist  than  the  Republican,  nor  more  marked 
by  devotion  to  States'  rights.  Since  the  Chicago  Convention  of  1896,  the 
party  has  been  chiefly  noted  as  the  advocate  of  free  silver,  although  not 
harmonious  on  this  issue. 

Democratic  Societies,  clubs  formed  in  many  American  towns  in 
1793,  in  imitation  of  the  Jacobin  and  other  political  clubs  of  France,  to 
express  sympathy  with  that  country  and  the  principles  of  the  French 
Revolution,  and  to  propagate  extreme  Democratic  views  on  American 
politics.     They  opposed  the  strongest  measures  of  Washington's  admin- 


2i4  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

istration,  especially  those  employed  in  the  suppression  of  the  Whiskey 
Insurrection  of  1794,  and  were  vigorously  denounced  by  him.  Soon 
after  this  they  declined  and  went  out  of  existence. 

Denmark.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Denmark  in  1826.  By  treaty  in  1857  the  United  States  paid 
Denmark  $393,000  in  commutation  of  the  Sound  dues.  October  25, 
1867,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Denmark,  providing  for  the  cession 
of  the  Islands  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  for  $7,500,000.  Denmark 
ratified  it,  but  the  U.  S.  Senate,  at  the  instance  of  Senator  Sumner,  re- 
fused to  do  so.  A  convention  relative  to  naturalization  was  concluded 
in  1872. 

Dennlson,  William  (1815-1882),  " War  Governor  "  of  Ohio,  was 
elected  Governor  in  i860.  An  ardent  Republican  and  anti-slavery  man, 
he  with  great  energy  and  ability  prepared  the  State  for  the  Civil  Wrar 
and  organized  and  supplied  its  forces.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Re- 
publican National  Nominating  Convention  in  1864,  and  from  that  year 
to  1866  was  Postmaster-General,  in  the  cabinets  of  Lincoln  and  Johnson. 

Departments,  Executive.  Executive  departments  of  the  U.  S. 
Government  existed  before  1789.  The  Continental  Congress  at  first 
transacted  all  executive  business  through  committees  ;  then  through 
commissions  composed  partly  of  its  own  members,  partly  of  others.  In 
1776  the  Treasury  Office  of  Accounts  was  established,  and  a  comptroller, 
auditor  and  treasurer  were  added  two  years  later.  In  1781  four  execu- 
tive departments  were  organized,  under  a  Superintendent  of  Finance 
and  Secretaries  of  War,  Marine  and  Foreign  Affairs,  respectively.  A 
Postmaster-General  had  been  provided  in  1775.  In  1784  the  Treasury 
Department  was  put  in  the  charge  of  a  board  of  three,  but  otherwise  the 
system  continued  until  the  inauguration  of  the  new  government  in  1789. 
In  that  year  Congress  provided  for  departments  of  State,  the  Treasury 
and  War,  and  instituted  the  office  of  Attorney-General.  The  first  plan 
contemplated  separate  departments  of  foreign  affairs  and  home  affairs, 
but  finally  these  were  united  in  the  Department  of  State.  The  Navy 
Department  was  established  in  1798,  the  Interior  Department  in  1849, 
the  Department  of  Justice  in  1870,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1889. 
For  details  of  their  history,  see  articles  under  their  individual  names. 

Depew,  Chauncey  Mitchell,  born  at  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  April  23, 
1834.  Graduated  at  Yale  1856,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  two  years  later. 
Began  practice  of  law  in  Peekskill  and  for  his  first  opinion  received 
$1.75.  He  was  very  poor  in  the  beginning  but  soon  established  a  good 
practice.     In  1864  was  appointed  Minister  to  Japan.     Previous  to  his 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  ai5 

appointment,  however,  he  had  served  as  a  member  of  the  N.  Y.  Assembly 
1861-2,  and  Secretary  of  State  1863.  In  I866  he  became  attorney  for 
the  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.,  and  in  1869  attorney  for  the  entire  Vanderbilt 
System.  In  1S74  he  was  regent  of  the  University,  State  of  New  York  and 
in  1885  declined  election  to  U.  S.  Senate,  and  also  declined  position  of 
Secretary  of  State  in  President  Harrison's  Cabinet.  He  was  a  prominent 
candidate  for  President  1888,  famous  as  an  orator  and  after-dinner 
speaker,  and  chosen  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  New  York  for  term  1899-- 
I905- 

Deposits,  Removal  of  the.  President  Jackson,  on  being  success- 
ful in  the  election  of  1832,  believed  himself  authorized  by  the  popular 
voice  to  pursue  to  extremities  his  war  upon  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
(see  Bank).  By  the  Act  of  1816  creating  the  bank,  the  funds  of  the 
Federal  Government  were  to  be  deposited  in  it,  subject  to  removal  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  should  state  to  Congress  the  reasons 
for  so  doing.  Jackson,  believing  that  the  bank  was  unsound,  and  that 
its  influence  was  used  to  corrupt  politics,  determined  that  the  deposits 
should  be  removed.  McL,ane,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  not  favoring 
this  course,  was  transferred  to  the  State  Department.  The  new  Secre- 
tary, Duane,  refused  to  give  the  necessary  order,  and  was  dismissed  by 
Jackson.  Roger  B.  Taney  was  then  appointed,  and  ordered  the  removal, 
more  strictly  cessation,  of  deposits,  September  26,  1833.  Jackson  set 
forth  his  reasons  to  Congress,  011  its  assembling.  The  Senate  replied  by 
a  vote  of  censure.  Jackson  sent  in  a  protest,  declaring  that  the  matter 
rested  entirely  within  his  competence  as  head  of  the  Executive  Depart- 
ment. In  1837  his  friends  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Senate  to  expunge 
its  resolution  of  censure. 

Derne  Expedition.  General  William  Eaton,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Tunis, 
persuading  his  government  to  lend  the  co-operation  of  its  naval  forces 
in  the  Mediterranean,  marched  from  Egypt  across  the  desert  with  Hamet, 
rightful  bashaw  of  Tripoli,  in  an  attack  upon  his  usurping  brother 
Joseph.  On  April  27,  1805,  he  took  Derne.  Upon  this  success  a  highly 
favorable  treaty  was  extorted  from  the  bashaw,  Hamet  being  induced 
to  retire. 

De  Russy,  Fort,  I^a.,  wrested  from  Dick  Taylor,  commanding 
about  12,000  Confederates,  by  A.  J.  Smith,  leading  an  army  of  some  10,- 
000  Federals.  This  battle  is  to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  Banks' 
Red  River  expedition.  It  occurred  March  14,  1864.  Smith  had  been 
ordered  to  join  Banks.  Hearing  that  Taylor  was  at  Shreveport  he  fol- 
lowed him  to  Fort  de  Russy.  After  a  cannonade  of  two  hours  Smith 
ordered  a  charge,  when  suddenly  the  garrison  surrendered. 


216  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Desert  I,and  Act,  an  Act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1877,  allowing,  on 
credit  for  three  years,  an  entry  of  640  acres  of  desert  land  for  purposes  of 
irrigation  and  improvement. 

De  Smet,  Peter  John  (1801-1872),  a  Belgian  Jesuit,  was  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  St.  Louis  from  1828  to  1838.  From  1838  he  was  a 
missionary  among  the  Pottawatomies  ;  from  1S40  on,  a  missionary  of 
remarkable  zeal  and  success  among  the  Flatheads  and  other  tribes  of 
the  Northwest.  In  the  first  fifteen  years  of  his  mission  he  estimated 
that  he  had  traveled  120,000  miles.  His  influence  over  the  Indian  tribes 
was  immense. 

De  Soto,  Fernando  (1496  ?-i5I2),  a  Spanish  noble,  came  to  America 
in  1519  in  the  service  of  Pedrarias  Davila,  and  accompanied  Pizarro  in 
the  conquest  of  Peru.  In  April,  1538,  he  set  out  from  Spain  with  600 
men,  commissioned  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Florida,  reputed  to  be 
a  land  of  great  wealth.  His  well-appointed  expedition  landed  in  Tampa 
Bay  in  May,  1539.  During  the  next  three  years  he  wandered  over  large 
parts  of  what  are  now  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  In  the  spring  of  1541 
he  discovered  the  Mississippi  River.  Crossing  it,  he  penetrated  as  far 
westward  as  to  the  highlands  of  the  White  River.  Returning,  he  died 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  spring  of  1542.  Some  of  his 
followers  escaped  to  Mexico. 

Detroit,  Mich.  The  site  was  visited  by  the  French  in  1669. 
Detroit  was  settled  in  1701  by  a  party  under  Antoine  de  la  Mothe 
Cadillac.  It  fell  to  the  British  in  1763,  and  was  besieged  by  Pontiac ; 
ceded  to  the  Americans  in  1783,  but  not  occupied  until  1796.  On  Aug. 
16,  1812,  General  Hull,  with  2,000  men,  made  an  inglorious  surrender  of 
Detroit  to  the  British  and  Indians  under  General  Brock  and  Tecumseh. 
Hull  was  cashiered.  Harrison  retook  the  town  in  October,  18 13,  after 
Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie.  From  1805  to  1847  Detroit  was  the  capi- 
tal of  Michigan  Territory  aud  State.     See  appendix,  page  482. 

Dewey,  George,  admiral,  born  in  Montpelier,  Vt.,  1837.  Appointed 
to  Naval  Academy  1854,  graduated  therefrom  1858  and  was  assigned  to 
the 4 '  Wabash. ' '  He  was  an  ensign  when  Fort  Sumter  was  fired  on,  and  one 
week  after  that  first  overt  act  of  the  Confederacy  Dewey  received  his  com- 
mission as  a  lieutenant.  He  was  immediately  assigned  to  duty  on  the  war 
sloop  ' '  Mississippi, ' '  a  sidewheeler  of  seventeen  guns,  that  was  attached 
to  the  West  Gulf  Squadron.  He  was  on  the  •  •  Mississippi  "  when  she  ran 
the  blockade  at  New  Orleans  and  also  when  she  was  blown  up  by  the 
batteries  at  Port  Hudson.  Subsequently  he  was  with  the  North  Atlantic 
blockading  squadron  on  the  gunboat ' ■  Agawam, ' '  and  after  the  close  of  thts 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


217 


war  he  served  on  the  ' '  Kearsarge  ' '  with  the  European  Squadron.  In  1890 
he  received  his  first  command,  of  the  "  Narragansett, "  and  held  the 
position  of  captain  of  the  "Dolphin,"  and  afterwards  of  the  "  Pen- 
sacola."  In  1888  he  was  made  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  and 
Recruiting,  which  gave  him  the  rank  of  commodore,  and  was  promoted 
to  actual  commodore  in  1896  and  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Board  of 
Inspection  and  Survey.  On  January  1,  1898,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Asiatic  Squadron,  of  which  he  took  command  January  2,  raising  his  flag 
on  the  protected  cruiser  "Olympia."  He  was  at  Hong  Kong  with  a 
fleet  of  six  vessels  when  war  between  the  United  States  and  Spain  was 
declared.  The  vessels  comprising  his  fleet  were  the  following : 
"Olympia,"  "Boston,"  "Baltimore,"  "  Raleigh,"  "  Concord  "  and 
"Petrel,"  and  the  collier  "Zaffiro,"  storeship  "Norstan,"  and  dis- 
patch boat  "McCulloch."  On  April  23  he  was  notified  by  the 
Acting  Governor  of  the  British  Colony  at  Hong  Kong  to  leave  the 
harbor  by  4  o'clock  A.  M.  of  the  25th,  but  before  the  expiration  of  this 
time  limit,  acting  upon  orders  from  the  Navy  Department  at  Washington, 
he  sailed  for  Manila,  Sunday  afternoon  the  24th,  to  engage  the  Spanish 
Squadron  in  Manila  Ba}'.  The  six  hundred  miles  of  sea  voyage  was 
accomplished  April  30,  and  on  the  night  of  May  1  he  steamed  with 
his  fleet  past  Corregidor  Island  at  the  mouth  of  the  bay,  and  early  in  the 
morning  (5  o'clock)  attacked  the  Spanish  fleet,  which  comprised 
eleven  vessels,  as  follows  :  "  Reina  Cristina  "  (Montojo's  flagship),  "  Cas- 
tilla, "  "  Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa, "  "  Don  Juan  de  Austria, "  "  Isla  de 
Luzon,"  "  Isla  de  Cuba,"  "  General  Lezo,"  "  Marquis  del  Duero,"  "  El 
Correo,"  "Velasco,"  "Isla  de  Mindanao"  (transport),  "Rapido"  and 
"Hercules"  (tugs),  and  two  torpedo  boats.  After  a  brisk  engagement 
Dewey  destroyed  all  these  vessels,  except  the  four  latter,  which  were 
captured,  killing  a  large  number  of  Spanish  sailors,  but  suffering  no  loss 
himself  except  the  slight  wounding  of  seven  men  on  the  "  Baltimore." 
The  effects  of  this  unprecedented  victory  was  of  the  utmost  importance, 
and  stamped  Dewey  as  one  of  the  greatest  naval  heroes  of  history. 
On  August  13  Dewey,  operating  in  conjunction  with  the  land  forces 
under  General  Merritt,  forced  a  surrender  of  Manila,  the  day  following 
the  signing  of  a  peace  treaty  between  Spain  and  America.  Dewey's 
return  to  America,  September  27  (1899),  was  the  occasion  of  the  most 
magnificent  welcome  probably  ever  extended  to  a  hero  by  any  nation. 
Three  days  were  devoted  to  celebration  in  New  York,  the  last  one 
(30th)  being  essentially  Dewey  day,  when  a  grand  procession  and 
naval  display  were  the  chief  features.  The  public's  gratefulness  took 
also  material  form  in  the  raising  of  $50,000,  with  which  a  splendid 
residence    was  purchased  and  furnished  in  Washington  for  Dewey. 


218  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Soon  after  he  married  Mrs.  Mildred  Hazen,  the  widow  of  General 
Hazen,  and  caused  much  public  criticism  by  deeding  to  her  the  house 
that  had  been  presented  to  him.  Three  days  later,  however,  his  wife 
transferred  the  property  to  Admiral  Dewey's  son  George.  As  a  mark  of 
great  public  appreciation  for  his  distinguished  services  Congress  revived 
the  grade  of  Admiral  and  conferred  this  highest  office  in  the  navy 
upon  Dewey. 

Dexter,  Samuel  (1761-1816),  a  noted  lawyer  of  Massachusetts,  was 
successively,  for  short  periods  in  1800  and  1801,  Secretary  of  War  and  of 
the  Treasury  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  John  Adams. 

Dias,  Porfirio,  the  greatest  of  Mexican  generals  and  statesmen,  was 
born  at  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  1830,  and  received  a  classical  education  at  the 
Oaxaca  Institute.  He  entered  upon  a  study  of  the  law,  but  when  the 
war  with  the  United  States  broke  out  (1846)  he  joined  the  National 
Guard  and  served  throughout  the  struggle.  On  Santa  Anna's  accession 
to  the  dictatorship  Diaz  left  the  army  and  took  up  the  practice  of  law, 
which  he  continued  until  the  revolution  against  the  French  (1854),  when 
he  returned  to  the  army  but  was  soon  made  a  prisoner.  Making  his 
escape,  he  headed  a  body  of  troops  that  harassed  Maximilian's  forces 
until  he  was  a  second  time  taken  prisoner  (at  Oaxaca,  1865)  by  the 
French.  A  second  time  he  contrived  to  escape,  and  with  5,000  men  be- 
sieged and  captured  Pueblo  1867,  and  then  marched  on  Mexico,  which 
surrendered  to  him  June  21  following.  When  the  French  were  forced 
to  withdraw  from  Mexico,  at  the  demands  of  the  United  States,  and 
Maximilian  was  executed,  Diaz  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
Presidency.  In  1872,  and  again  in  1876,  he  headed  revolts  against  the 
government,  and  after  much  severe  fighting  occupied  the  capital.  In 
1877  he  was  chosen  President  of  the  Republic  to  fill  the  unexpired  term 
of  Lerdo,  who  was  a  fugitive.  In  1884  Diaz  was  again  elected  President, 
and  the  law  prohibiting  a  re-election  being  repealed,  he  has  succeeded 
himself  at  every  election  since,  his  last  term  expiring  1904.  To  Diaz 
Mexico  is  indebted  for  her  rise,  progress  and  standing  as  a  nation.  He 
has  made  property  secure  by  preserving  a  stable  government, and  deserves 
the  confidence  of  his  people. 

Dickerson,  Mahlon  (i77°-l852>)  >  a  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania 
lawyer,  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  from  1815  to  1817,  and  a  Senator 
from  that  State  from  that  time  to  1833.  From  1834  to  1838  he  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  serving  under  Jackson  and  Van  Buren. 

Dickinson,  Don  M.,  born  in  1846,  was  Postmaster-General  in 
Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1888  to  i88q. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  219 

Dickinson,  John  (1732-1808),  a  Philadelphia  lawyer,  was  in  1765 
elected  to  the  Colonial  Congress,  and  in  1768  distinguished  himself  by 
writing  "Letters  from  a  Pennsylvania  Farmer"  in  defense  of  the 
liberties  of  America.  Elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1774,  he 
wrote  its  ' '  Address  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Quebec, "  its  "  Declaration 
to  the  Armies,"  its  "  Address  to  the  States,"  and  its  two  petitions  to  the 
king.  He  opposed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  as  premature,  but 
served  loyally  in  the  army.  Again  a  member  of  Congress,  he  was 
chosen  president  of  Delaware  in  1881,  and  was  president  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1782  to  1785.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Federal  Convention  of 
1787,  and  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

Dickinson  College,  one  of  the  older  American  colleges,  was  founded 
at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1783,  and  named  in  honor  of  John  Dickinson,  then 
president  of  the  State,  who  gave  it  valuable  gifts.  A  Presbyterian 
institution  from  its  foundation  to  1833,  it  was  then  transferred  to  the 
Methodists.  President  Buchanan  and  Chief  Justice  Taney  were  among 
its  alumni. 

Dieskau  I^udwig,  August  von  (1701-1767),  a  soldier  of  Saxon 
birth,  who  had  served  under  Marshal  Saxe  in  the  French  sendee,  was 
sent  to  Canada  as  major-general  in  1755,  and  commanded  an  expedition 
against  the  English  colonies  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain.  At  first 
victorious  in  the  fight  near  Fort  Edward,  he  was  finally  defeated. 

Dighton  Rock,  a  rock  lying  in  the  tide  on  the  side  of  Taunton 
River,  in  Berkeley,  Mass.,  formerly  in  Dighton,  and  marked  with  a 
curious  inscription,  attracted  early  attention  on  the  part  of  antiquaries. 
Rafn,  1837,  declared  that  its  markings  were  a  runic  inscription  of  the 
Northmen,  relating  to  the  expedition  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefue,  but  this 
view  has  now  been  generally  abandoned,  though  the  central  portion 
may  be  Norse. 

Dingley,  Nelson,  lawyer  and  journalist,  born  1832  in  Maine.  He 
was  speaker  of  Maine  Legislature  1863  to  1864.  Governor  1874  to  1875. 
Elected  to  Congress  i88r,  and  has  served  continuously  to  date,  1897. 
Author  of  the  Dingley  Tariff  Bill.     Died  1899. 

Dinwiddie,  Robert  (1690  ?-i77o),  a  Scotchman,  was  Governor  of 
Virginia  from  1752  to  1758.  His  chief  merit  was  his  perception  of  the 
military  abilities  of  Washington,  whom  he  sent  upon  the  mission  to  the 
French  commander  on  the  Ohio,  and  then  upon  the  military  expedition 
which  opened  the  French  and  Indian  War.  In  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
he  quarreled  with  the  Virginian  Assembly,  and  suggested  taxation  of 
♦lie  colonies. 


220  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Direct  Taxes.  Congress  has  levied  direct  taxes  on  but  five  occa- 
cions.  In  1798,  1813,  1815  and  1816  a  direct  tax  was  levied  by  Federal 
authority  on  lands,  houses  and  slaves.  In  August,  1861,  to  meet  expenses 
of  the  Civil  War,  a  direct  tax  of  $20,000,000  was  levied  on  all  lots  of 
ground  with  their  improvements  and  dwelling-houses.  The  operation 
of  the  act  was  suspended  on  July  1,  1862.  By  Act  of  March  2,  1891, 
$15,000,000,  collected  under  this  act,  were  refunded  to  the  States. 

Directories.  The  first  city  directory  issued  in  the  United  States 
was  published  in  New  York  as  early  as  1786.  It  was  a  small  volume  of 
eighty-two  pages  and  contained  only  some  nine  hundred  names.  Since 
that  time  annual  directories  have  appeared  in  New  York. 

Directory.  The  French  Directory  of  five  members  was  established 
as  the  Executive  Government  of  France  in  1795,  and  was  suppressed  by 
Bonaparte  in  1799  (November  9).  It  came  into  collision  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  because  of  the  action  of  France  in  seizing 
American  provision-ships  and  permitting  illegal  captures  of  American 
vessels  by  her  privateers.  Our  government  recalling  Monroe  in  1796, 
the  Directory  refused  to  recognize  his  successor,  C.  C.  Pinckney,  and 
complained  of  the  failure  of  the  United  States  to  stand  by  the  treaty  of 
alliance  of  1778.  New  envoys  were  sent  out  by  President  Adams, — 
Pinckney,  Marshall  and  Gerry, — but  were  dismissed  without  satisfac- 
tion, after  attempts  made  to  bribe  the  U.  S.  Government  (see  X.  Y.  Z. 
Mission).  A  virtual  state  of  war  ensued  (1798),  but  in  1799  Adams,  on 
a  more  favorable  turn  of  affairs,  sent  a  new  embassy,  Murray,  Ellsworth 
and  Davie.  When  they  arrived  Bonaparte  had  already  overthrown  the 
Directory.  With  his  government  the  treaty  of  Morfontaine  (September 
30,  1800)  was  concluded. 

Disciples,  Church  of  the,  also  called  "Christians"  and  "Catnp- 
bellites,"  a  religious  body  founded  in  1809  by  Thomas  and  Alexander 
Campbell.  Taking  the  express  teachings  of  the  Bible  as  the  only  au- 
thoritative guide  in  religious  matters,  their  purpose  was  to  bring  about 
Christian  unity.  Their  first  stage  consisted  in  the  uniting  in  one  body 
of  various  Protestants  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  chiefly  Presbyterians 
and  Baptists.  Thence  they  spread  westward.  In  1831  they  were  joined 
by  another  body  which  had  grown  up  upon  similar  principles  in  Ken- 
tucky and  neighboring  States.  In  1867  the  number  of  Disciples  in  the 
United  States  was  estimated  at  425,000.  The  census  of  1890  ascribed  to 
them  7,246  organizations  and  641,000  members. 

District.  The  name  District  has  been  given  in  American  history  to 
divisions  of  the  country  resembling  territories  in  organization,  but  with- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  221 

out  representative  or  elective  institutions.  Existing  instances  are  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  that  of  Alaska.  An  early  instance  was  the 
District  of  Louisiana,  which  from  1804  to  1812  comprised  all  that  portion 
of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  which  lay  north  of  the  northern  boundary  of 
the  present  State  of  Louisiana.  In  South  Carolina  the  counties  were  at 
one  time  called  districts. 

District  Courts.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  provided  for  two 
classes  of  U.  S.  Courts  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court, — Circuit  Courts 
and  District  Courts.  Each  District  consisted  of  one  State,  and  had  its 
district  judge.  Since  then,  some  States  have  been  divided,  and  these 
Federal  courts  of  the  lowest  grade  now  number  more  than  sixty. 

District  of  Columbia.  The  Constitution  of  1787  gave  Congress 
power  ' '  to  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  United  States."  In  1790,  after  warm  discussions, 
the  present  site  was  selected.  A  ten-mile  square  was  laid  out  on  the 
Potomac.  Maryland  ceded  sixty -four  square  miles  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  river,  Virginia  thirty-six  square  miles  on  the  south.  In  1791  this 
area  received  the  official  name  of  the  Territory  of  Columbia.  The  seat 
of  government  was  removed  thither  in  1800.  In  1846  the  portion  south 
of  the  Potomac  was  retroceded  to  Virginia.  The  laws  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia  were  in  force  in  the  district,  unless  repealed  by  Congress  ;  e.  g., 
their  slave  laws.  From  1871  to  1874  the  district  had  a  Territorial  gov- 
ernment, with  elective  institutions.  This  proved  extravagant,  and 
government  by  commissioners  under  the  authority  of  Congress  was  sub- 
stituted. 

Dix,  John  A.  (1798-1879),  born  in  New  Hampshire,  was  in  the 
army  from  18 12  to  1828.  From  1833  to  1840  he  was  Secretary  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  became  a  member  of  the  "  Albany  Regency." 
From  1845  to  1849  ne  was  a  Democratic  Senator.  In  the  last  months  of 
Buchanan's  administrate .1  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  aided 
to  restore  confidence  in  the  Federal  Government.  An  ardent  "  War 
Democrat,"  he  served  through  the  war  as  a  major-general  of  volunteers. 
From  1872  to  1874  he  was  Governor  of  New  York,  and  is  famous  for  the 
saying, ' '  If  any  man  attempt  to  haul  down  the  flag  shoot  him  on  the 
spot." 

Dixon,  Jeremiah,  English  mathematician,  with  Charles  Mason,  ran 
"  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,"  beginning  in  1766. 

Dobbin,  James  C.  (1814-1857),  represented  North  Carolina  in  the 


222  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1845  to  1847.     He  was  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  in  Pierce's  Cabinet  from  1853  to  1857. 

Dole,  Sanford  B.,  born  in  Hawaiian  Islands  (son  of  a  missionary), 
1844,  educated  at  Oahee  College,  Hawaii,  and  Williams  College,  Mass. 
Studied  law  in  Boston  and  admitted  to  the  bar  there,  engaged  in  prac- 
tice in  Honolulu.  He  was  a  leader  in  the  reform  movement  1887,  was 
judge  of  the  Hawaii  Supreme  Court  1887-93,  m  which  latter  year  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  provisional  government ;  became  president 
by  provision  of  the  constitution  of  1894  to  hold  that  office  until  1901. 
He  was  commanded  by  President  Cleveland,  through  Minister  Willis, 
to  relinquish  to  Queen  Lilioukalani  her  constitutional  authority,  but 
refused,  upon  the  ground  that  President  Cleveland  had  no  right  to 
interfere,  and  was  sustained  in  this  position. 

Dollar.  The  Spanish  milled  dollar  was  the  type  of  the  American 
silver  dollar.  By  Act  of  1792,  37 itf  grains  of  pure  silver  and  24^  grains 
of  pure  gold  were  declared  to  be  equivalent  to  each  other  and  to  the 
dollar  of  account.  The  silver  dollar  was  first  coined  in  1794,  weighing 
416  grains  (371  %  plus  alloy).  In  1837  the  weight  of  alloy  was  so  re- 
duced that  the  weight  of  the  coin  should  be  412  */£  grains.  The  gold 
dollar  was  first  coined  in  1849.  In  1873  provision  was  made  for  a  trade 
dollar  of  420  grains,  for  use  in  the  trade  with  China  and  Japan.  From 
1873  t°  ^S  the  issue  of  the  old  silver  dollar  was  suspended.  The  gold 
half-dollar  and  quarter-dollar  were  never  coined  by  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment. The  silver  half-dollar  has  been  coined  since  1794.  Its  weight, 
at  first  208  grains,  was  subsequently  reduced  to  206.25  in  1837,  to  192  in 
1853,  and  raised  to  192.9  in  1873.  The  quarter-dollar,  coinage  of  which 
began  in  1796,  has  undergone  corresponding  changes  of  weight. 

Donaldson,  Udward  (1816-1889),  rear-admiral,  served  in  the  U.  S. 
navy  from  1835  to  1876.  In  the  Civil  War  he  took  part  in  the  capture 
of  New  Orleans  and  in  the  passage  of  Vicksburg,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Mobile  Bay  commanded  the  '•  Seminole." 

Donaldsonville,  I/a.,  occupied  in  1863  by  a  baud  of  Confederate 
guerrillas  and  bombarded,  June  28,  by  Admiral  Farragut  during  his 
operations  along  the  Mississippi  River  in  command  of  the  Union  fleet. 

Donation  I^ands.  August  4,  1842,  Congress  passed  a  donation  act 
for  the  Territory  of  East  Florida.  Persons  who  could  bear  arms  were 
allowed  one  quarter-section  of  land  upon  which  to  settle.  September 
27,  1850,  a  donation  act  was  passed  for  Oregon,  granting  settlers  from 
160  to  640  acres. 

Donelson,  Andrew  Jackson  (1800-1871),  nephew  of  General  Jack. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  223 

son,  was  private  secretary  to  his  uncle  during  the  latter 's  Presidency, 
Minister  to  Prussia  and  the  German  Confederation  from  1846  to  1849, 
and  in  1856  was  nominated  for  the  Vice-Presidency  by  the  American 
party  on  the  ticket  with  Fillmore. 

Donelson,  Fort,  Tenn.,  an  important  Confederate  fortification  on 
the  Cumberland.  After  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry,  on  the  Tennessee, 
February  8,  1862,  General  Grant  moved  his  forces  over  to  the  Cumber- 
land and  attacked  Fort  Donelson.  The  Federal  gunboats  were  driven 
off  at  first,  but  Grant's  land  forces  attacked  the  fort  in  such  numbers 
and  with  such  vigor  that  surrender  became  necessary.  Grant,  in  a 
memorable  letter,  demanded  its  unconditional  surrender  of  General 
Buckner,  who  commanded  it  after  the  flight  of  Floyd  and  Pillow. 
15,000  Confederates  were  made  prisoners  by  this  victory,  and  the  fall  of 
Nashville  and  Columbus  became  inevitable.  An  attempt  to  recapture 
this  place  from  the  Federals  was  made  February  15,  1863,  by  Wheeler, 
leading  4,500  of  Bragg's  Confederate  army.  The  garrison  of  the  fort 
was  600  Federals  under  Harding.  Wheeler  demanded  a  surrender,  but 
Harding  replied  by  sending  out  skirmishers,  to  dela}*-  an  attack  while  he 
sent  for  aid  to  Fort  Henry.  In  the  evening  the  gunboat  "  Fair  Play," 
Lieutenant  Fitch,  came  up  the  river,  and  the  Confederates  withdrew. 

Doniphan,  Alexander  W.  (1808-1887) ,  colonel  in  the  Mexican  War, 
accomplished  amid  many  hardships  a  difficult  march  from  New  Mexico 
to  Chihuahua,  and  near  the  latter  place  defeated  a  Mexican  force  more 
than  four  times  as  numerous  as  his  own. 

Donnelly,  Ignatius,  see  appendix,  page  482. 

Donop,  Count  (1740-1777),  commander  of  Hessians  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  attempt  to  take  by  assault 
Fort  Mercer,  near  Red  Bank,  N.  J. ,  October  22,  1777. 

Doolittle,  James  R.,  born  in  New  York  in  1815,  from  1853  to  1856 
was  Judge  of  the  Wisconsin  Supreme  Court,  was  U.  S.  Senator  from 
1857  to  1869,  and  a  delegate  to  the  Peace  Convention  of  1861.  Died 
1897. 

Dorchester  Heights  were,  at  Washington's  command,  occupied 
and  fortified  by  General  Thomas  with  2,500  of  Washington's  troops 
March  4  and  5,  1776.  This  proved  so  dangerous  to  Howe  that  he  was 
obliged  to  evacuate  Boston  with  all  speed. 

Dorr  Rebellion,  an  effort  made  in  1840-42  to  overturn  the  State 
government  of  Rhode  Island  by  revolutionary  means.  After  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  Rhode  Island  retained  her  charter  government. 
Many  of  the  citizens,  headed  by  Thomas  W.  Dorr,  of  Providence,  be- 


224  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

came  discontented  with  the  existing  government  and  its  limited  suffrage. 
Mass  meetings  were  held,  and  in  October,  1841,  a  convention  of  dele- 
gates prepared  a  Constitution,  which  was  submitted  to  a  popular  vote, 
and  was  claimed  to  have  received  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  State. 
The  legitimate  government  treated  these  proceedings  as  nugatory,  and, 
in  a  measure,  criminal.  May  3,  1842,  the  "suffrage  legislature"  as- 
sembled at  Newport,  with  Dorr  as  Governor.  King,  the  legitimate 
Governor,  proclaimed  martial  law.  The  suffrage  party  appealed  to 
arms.  Their  troops  were  dispersed  and  Dorr  fled.  He  was  afterward 
captured  and  convicted  of  treason,  but  was  pardoned  in  1852. 

Double  IJagle,  or  twenty-dollar  gold  piece,  coinage  authorized  by 
Congress  March,  1849,  coinage  begun  in  1850.  Legal  tender  to  an  un- 
limited amount.  So  called  from  the  figure  of  the  national  bird  stamped 
on  reverse. 

Doubleday,  Abner  (1819-1893),  general,  born  in  New  York,  aimed 
the  first  gun  in  the  defense  of  Fort  Sumter,  and  served  with  distinction 
at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.  He 
retired  from  the  army  in  1873. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold  (April  23,  1813— June  3, 1861),  was  born 
at  Brandon,  Vt.  He  worked  on  a  farm,  taught  school,  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty-one  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Illinois.  Soon  afterward  he 
was  Attorney-General  of  the  State,  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  an 
unsuccessful  Democratic  candidate  for  Congress.  In  1840  he  became 
Secretary  of  State  of  Illinois,  and  in  1841  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  State.  Judge  Douglas  was  in  the  House  of  Representatives  from 
1843  to  1847,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1847  to  1861.  During  this  period, 
when  the  slavery  issue  came  to  overshadow  all  other  questions,  the 
"  Little  Giant,"  as  Douglas  was  affectionately  styled,  became  one  of 
the  leaders  of  his  party.  In  Congress  he  favored  the  acquisition  of  the 
whole  of  Oregon,  and  was  chairman  of  the  important  Committee  on 
Territories.  He  advocated  the  compromise  of  1850,  and  formulated  the 
doctrine  of  Popular  Sovereignty  (which  see).  In  accordance  with  the 
latter  idea  he  reported  in  December,  1853,  the  famous  Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill  (which  see) .  His  name  was  presented  to  the  Democratic  National 
Conventions  in  1852  and  1856.  While  running  for  re-election  to  the 
Senate  in  1858,  he  carried  on  a  joint  debate  with  Lincoln,  which 
brought  the  latter  into  national  prominence.  Douglas  was  nominated 
for  President  by  the  Northern  wing  of  the  Democratic  party  in  i860, 
but  received  only  twelve  electoral  votes,  although  a  large  popular  vote 
was  thrown  for  him.     He  survived  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  but  a 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  225 

few  months,  supporting  to  the  end  the  cause  of  the  Union.     L,ife  by 
Sheahan. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  the  most  eminent  of  American  negroes,  was 
born  in  Maryland  in  18 17.  He  escaped  from  slavery  in  1838,  and  was 
educated  by  William  Lloyd  Garrison.  He  lectured  for  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Anti-Slavery  Society  from  1841  to  1845,  and  then  labored  in 
Europe  till  1847.  In  1871  he  was  commissioner  for  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  in  1872  was  Presidential  elector-at-large  for  New  York. 
He  was  U.  S.  Marshal  for  the  District  of  Columbia  from  1876  to  1881, 
and  Recorder  of  Deeds  from  1881  till  1886.  From  1889  to  1891  he  was 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Hayti.     Died  1895. 

Dover,  N.  H.,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  State,  was  settled  in 
1623.  On  the  night  of  June  27,  1689,  the  town  was  attacked  by  Indians, 
and  twenty-three  of  the  inhabitants  were  killed.  Dover  became  a  city 
in  1855. 

Dow,  Neal,  temperance  reformer,  was  born  in  Maine  in  1804.  He 
secured  the  passage  of  the  Maine  liquor  law  in  185 1,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Legislature  from  1858  to  1859.  He  served  during  the  Civil  War, 
lectured  in  England  in  1857,  1866  and  1874,  and  in  1880  was  the  Pres- 
idential candidate  of  the  Prohibition  party.     Died  October  2,  1897. 

Downes,  John  (1786-1855),  entered  the  navy  in  1802,  commanded 
the  "  Essex  "  and  captured  the  "  Georgiana,"  which,  named  "  Essex 
Junior,"  he  afterward  commanded  till  1814,  and  from  1819-1821  com- 
manded the  "  Macedonia,"  from  1828  to  1829  the  "  Java,"  and  from 
1832  to  1834  the  Pacific  squadron. 

Downing,  Sir  George  (1623  ?-i684),  of  the  class  of  1642  of  Harvard 
College,  went  to  England  in  1645,  and  was  envoy  of  Cromwell  and  of 
Charles  II.  to  the  Netherlands,  1657-1663  and  in  1671.  He  is  said  to  have 
instigated  the  conquest  of  New  Netherland. 

Drafts,  methods  employed  twice  by  the  United  States  Government 
and  twice  by  the  Confederacy  for  raising  and  increasing  the  armies. 
The  first  measure,  introduced  into  Congress  in  1814,  during  the  war 
with  Great  Britain,  was  due  to  a  proposal  by  New  York  and  Virginia  of 
a  Federal  classification  and  draft  from  the  State  militia.  This  bill  was 
prepared  largely  by  James  Monroe,  but  was  highly  unacceptable  to  the 
Federalists  and  proved  a  failure,  though  the  army  was  much  in  need  of 
men.  In  1863  a  somewhat  similar  plan  was  introduced  in  Congress, 
but  was  objected  to  by  the  Democrats  on  the  grounds  of  unconstitution- 
ality and  failed.  Accordingly  May  3,  1863,  another  bill  passed  both 
Vol.  V.— 15 


226  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Houses,  which  had  no  reference  to  the  militia  but  called  every  able- 
bodied  citizen  of  military  age  into  the  Federal  service.  A  commutation 
of  $300  for  exemption  was  permitted,  and  persons  refusing  obedience 
were  treated  as  deserters.  April  16,  1862,  and  July  18,  1863,  the  Con- 
federate Congress  passed  conscription  laws  levying  on  all  persons  be- 
tween the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five  years.  The  unpopularity  of 
the  conscription  caused  the  "  drafts  riots  "  in  New  York  City  July  13- 
16,  1863,  when  the  city  was  for  four  days  in  the  possession  of  the  mob. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis  (1546-1566),  an  Elizabethan  navigator,  made 
an  expedition  to  Mexico  in  1567,  and  to  South  America  in  1572.  He 
explored  the  Pacific  coast  from  1577  to  1579,  landed  on  the  coast  of 
California  and  returned  to  England  by  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans, 
making  a  successful  circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

Dranesville,  or  Drainsville,  Va.  Here  December  20,  1861,  J.  E. 
B.  Stuart,  commanding  2,500  Confederates,  attacked  4,500  Federals 
under  Ord,  who  was  engaged  in  loading  his  forage  wagons.  The  fight 
was  short,  but  severe.  The  Confederates  were  greatly  outnumbered 
and  were  defeated. 

Draper,  William  F.,  manufacturer,  born  in  Massachusetts,  1842. 
Served  in  Union  army  from  1861  to  1864,  rising  to  rank  of  general. 
Served  in  Fifty -third  and  Fifty-fourth  Congresses.  Became  Ambassa- 
dor to  Italy  May,  1897. 

Drayton,  William  H.  (1742-1779),  born  in  South  Carolina,  went 
to  England,  and  in  1771  was  appointed  a  privy  councilor  of  South 
Carolina.  He  was  deprived  of  his  crown  offices  on  account  of  sympathy 
with  the  colonies,  and  was  made  president  of  the  Provincial  Congress 
in  1775.  In  1776  he  became  Chief  Justice  of  South  Carolina  and  in  1777 
president,  and  in  1778  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

Dred  Seott  vs.  Sanford.  In  1834  Dred  Scott,  a  negro  slave  of 
Missouri,  was  taken  by  his  master,  who  was  a  surgeon  in  the  regular 
army,  first  into  Illinois  and  then  into  Minnesota,  a  region  from  which 
slavery  was  expressly  excluded  by  the  celebrated  Missouri  Compromise 
of  1820.  While  in  Minnesota  Scott  was  married  with  his  master's  con- 
sent, but  on  being  brought  back  to  Missouri  in  1838,  he  and  his  wife 
and  children  were  sold  to  another  master.  Scott  brought  action  for 
trespass  in  a  St.  Louis  court,  and  a  decision  was  made  in  his  favor  on 
the  ground  that,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  the 
negro  was  free.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Missouri  reversed  this  decision, 
and  the  case  came  before  the  Federal  Circuit  Court  in  1854.  The  de- 
fendant slaveholder  pleaded  that  Scott  was  not  a  citizen  entitled  to  sue 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  227 

and  be  sued  in  the  U.  S.  Courts.  The  court  held  the  contrary,  but  the 
jury's  verdict  decided  the  plaintiff  still  a.  slave.  The  case  came  before 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1857.  Here  the  judgment 
of  the  Circuit  Court  was  reversed,  and  the  case  dismissed  on  the  ground 
that  no  negro,  bond  or  free,  could  plead  in  the  U.  S.  Courts  as  a 
"citizen."  The  court  then,  though  denying  its  jurisdiction  over  the 
dispute,  discussed  the  constitutional  points.  Scott's  status  in  Illinois 
was  declared  determined  by  his  Missouri  domicile.  As  regarded  the 
Minnesota  Territory  the  court  declared  the  Missouri  Compromise  un- 
constitutional and  void,  it  being  held  that  States  alone  could  prohibit 
slavery  from  their  boundaries.  Chief  Justice  Taney  read  the  opinion  of 
a  majority  of  the  court,  Justices  Curtis  and  McLean  dissenting.  Scott 
was  afterward  freed  by  his  master.  The  decision  aroused  great  excite- 
ment in  the  North. 

Drewry's  Bluff,  or  Fort  Darlingf,  on  James  River,  Va.,  attacked 
May  15,  1862,  by  five  Federal  war-ships,  including  the  "Monitor." 
Captain  Farrand  held  the  fort  with  20,000  Confederates.  The  Federal 
fleet  was  badly  disabled  and  had  to  retire.  Again,  May  13-16,  1864, 
during  Butler's  operations  with  the  Army  of  the  James  around  Bermuda 
Hundred,  Fort  Darling,  or  Drewry's  Bluff,  was  the  scene  of  some 
sharp  fighting.  It  was  held  at  that  time  by  Beauregard,  who  had  about 
20,000  men.  Butler  made  an  attack  the  morning  of  the  fourteenth  and 
succeeded  in  carrying  some  of  the  Confederate  lines.  Beauregard 
hastened  to  strengthen  his  position  with  reinforcements,  which  oppor- 
tunely arrived.  On  the  sixteenth  Beauregard  made  a  return  attack 
with  a  strong  force  and  compelled  Butler  to  retire.  Butler's  army  was 
also  about  20,000  strong. 

Drummond,  Sir  George  Gordon  (1771-1854),  a  British  soldier, 
served  in  Canada  from  1808  to  181 1  and  from  1813  to  1816.  He  stormed 
Niagara,  captured  Oswego,  commanded  at  Lundy's  Lane,  and  from 
1814  to  1816  administered  the  government  of  Canada. 

Drummond,  William,  died  in  1677.  He  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Albemarle  (*.  e. ,  North  Carolina)  by  Governor  Berkeley,  or  Virginia 
(1663-67).  Afterward  he  was  prominent  as  a  leader  in  the  Bacon  Re- 
bellion of  1676,  and  was  executed  by  Berkeley. 

Duane,  William  J.  (1780-1865;,  a  distinguished  lawyer,  became 
Secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  in  1833,  and  was  removed  by  President 
Jackson  for  refusing  to  withdraw  the  deposits  from  the  U.  S.  bank. 

Duche,  Jacob  (1737-T798),  Episcopal  clergyman  in  Philadelphia, 


228  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

espoused  the  patriot  cause  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution.  He  was 
the  first  chaplain  of  the  Congress  in  1774.  He  despaired  of  success  for 
the  colonies,  and  in  1777  advised  Washington  by  letter  to  abandon  the 
attempt.     This  made  him  so  unpopular  that  he  went  to  England. 

Dug  Spring,  Mo.,  a  sharp  skirmish,  August  1,  1861,  between  Gen- 
eral Nathaniel  I^yon's  Federal  force  of  5,500  and  McCulloch's  Confed- 
erate volunteers  numbering  12,000.     McCulloch  was  worsted. 

"Duke's  I/awS."  A  code  of  laws  drawn  up  in  1664  by  Colonel 
Nicolls,  then  governing  the  colonies  of  the  Duke  of  York's  patent.  They 
were  first  arranged  for  the  government  of  the  Dutch  settlers  of  Long 
Island.  They  prohibited  the  election  of  magistrates,  but  provided  for 
trial  by  jury,  equal  taxation,  tenure  of  lands  from  the  Duke  of  York, 
freedom  of  religion,  liability  to  military  duty,  and  recognition  of  negro 
slavery  under  certain  restrictions. 

Du  Jyhut,  Daniel  G.,  died  in  1709,  was  engaged  as  fur-trader  and 
explorer  on  the  frontier,  and  was  of  much  service  to  the  French  col- 
onists in  aiding  them  against  Indian  attacks.     Duluth  is  named  for  him. 

Dummer's  War,  a  war  during  1724-25  between  the  border  settlers 
of  Vermont  and  Maine,  and  the  Indian  tribes  incited  by  the  French  of 
Canada.  William  Dummer  was  then  acting  Governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  it  was  through  his  efforts  that  the  trouble  was  terminated  by  a  treaty 
with  the  Indians  in  1725.  Fort  Dummer  was  erected  at  the  present  site 
of  Brattleboro' in  1724.  May  9,  1725,  Captain  John  Lovewell  defeated 
the  Indians  in  a  bloody  battle  at  Fryeburg,  Maine.  Four  sagamores 
signed  the  treaty  with  Dummer  at  Boston  in  November  of  the  same 
year. 

Dunkers  (Dunkards  or  Brethren),  a  denomination  of  American  Bap- 
tists who  originated  in  Germany  in  1708  but  were  driven  by  persecution 
to  this  country  between  17 19  and  1729.  They  are  now  most  numerous 
in  Ohio.  In  1790  a  number  who  held  Universalist  views  seceded  and 
still  remain  apart.  They  strive  to  reproduce  the  exact  order  of  the 
apostolic  church,  dress  plainly,  refuse  to  go  to  law  or  to  engage  in  war, 
take  no  interest  on  money  lent  to  the  brethren,  and  take  especial  care  of 
the  poor.  Their  membership  is  estimated  at  about  10,000,  but  they 
themselves  keep  no  statistics. 

Dunmore,  John  Murray,  Earl  of  (1732-1809),  a  descendant  of  the 
Stuarts,  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  1766  and  became  Governor  of  New 
York  in  1770  and  of  Virginia  in  1771.  In  1774  the  Virginians  under 
Patrick  Henry,  took  up  arms  against  his  government.     He  fled  in  1775, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  229 

and  during  the  first  year  of  the  Revolution  conducted  petty  warfare  and 
led  plundering  expeditions  on  the  coast,  burning  Norfolk,  but  was  dis- 
lodged in  1776. 

Du  Pont,  de  Nemours,  Pierre  S.  (1739-1817),  celebrated  French 
economist,  twice  president  of  the  National  Assembly,  resided  in  America 
from  1798  to  1802  and  in  1815  settled  in  Delaware. 

Dupont,  or  Du  Pont,  Samuel  Francis  ( 1803-1865) ,  entered  the 
navy  in  his  youth,  but  had  no  opportunities  for  distinction  until  the 
Mexican  War,  when  he  took  San  Diego.  His  great  naval  feat  was  in 
the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War  ;  he  captured  the  fortifications  of  Port 
Royal  harbor  on  November  7,  1861,  and  followed  up  this  success  by 
seizing  Tybee  and  reducing  many  points  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  and 
Florida.  For  these  successes  he  was  made  rear-admiral.  The  unsuc- 
cessful attacks  on  the  defenses  of  Charleston  under  his  lead,  in  1863, 
were  made  against  his  better  judgment. 

Duquesne,  !Fort,  erected  at  the  junction  of  the  Allegheny  and  Mo- 
nongahela  Rivers  in  Pennsylvania  by  the  French  under  Captain  Contre- 
cceur  in  1754.  It  became  at  once  the  center  of  French  military  opera- 
tions in  that  section.  In  1755  Braddock  was  sent  to  capture  it.  He  was 
defeated  July  9  by  the  French  and  Indians.  Major  Grant  and  800  men 
were  defeated  and  cut  to  pieces  in  a  second  expedition  against  the  fort 
October  15,  1757.  In  the  summer  of  1758  General  Forbes  with  6,000 
men  moved  against  it.  His  march  was  slow.  The  rains  ruined  roads  as 
soon  as  constructed.  A  reconnoitering  party  under  Grant  was  cut  off. 
At  length  the  whole  force  advanced.  On  the  evening  of  September  24 
the  fort  was  evacuated  and  blown  up.  By  Forbes'  slow  advance  the  pa- 
tience of  the  Indians  in  alliance  with  the  French  had  been  exhausted 
and  the  garrison  reduced  to  less  than  1,000.  The  place  was  named  Fort 
Pitt  (Pittsburg)  in  honor  of  the  English  Minister,  and  a  strong  fort 
erected  there  the  next  year. 

Dustin,  Hannah,  of  Massachusetts,  born  about  1660,  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Indians  in  1697  and,  aided  by  a  boy,  Samuel  Leonard, 
killed  ten  of  her  captors  in  camp  and  escaped  to  her  home  in  Haverhill, 
after  notable  adventures. 

Dutch.  The  chief  settlements  of  the  Dutch  in  the  American  colo- 
nies were  in  New  Netherland,  now  New  York,  and  the  adjoining  part  of 
New  Jersey.  They  were  successful  in  commerce  and  industrious  in 
agriculture,  but  indifferent  to  politics.  Probably  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  more  than  half  of  the  population  of  the  State  were  of  Dutch 
descent,  and  Dutch  was  still  spoken  in  the  villages  along  the  Hudson  in 


23o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  earlier  years  of  this  century.  Of  late,  efforts  have  been  made  to 
prove  that  the  chief  influence  in  the  formation  of  American  institutions 
was  Dutch  rather  than  English,  that  for  instance  the  ideas  of  a  written 
constitution,  the  ballot,  freedom  of  religion,  democracy,  equal  partition 
of  the  goods  of  an  intestate,  the  recording  of  deeds  by  the  State,  and 
free  schools,  were  derived  from  Dutch  example.  In  the  case  of  most  of 
these  claims,  it  must  be  said  that  they  are  still  quite  unproved.  It  is 
true  that  the  Netherland  Republic  was  in  1620  far  in  advance  of  England 
in  respect  to  freedom,  institutional  development  and  general  civiliza- 
tion, and  that  it  was  then  in  close  association  with  England,  and 
that  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  some  other  colonists  were  well  acquainted 
with  the  life  of  the  Dutch.  In  the  case  of  free  schools,  legistration  of 
deeds  and  the  laws  of  succession,  and  a  few  other  particulars,  a  proba- 
bility of  Dutch  influence  has  been  shown.  But  in  the  case  of  the 
fundamentals  of  American  constitutional  life,  the  new  theory  not  only 
has  not  been  proved,  but  is  in  most  respects  highly  improbable. 

Duxbury,  Mass.,  was  founded  by  Miles  Standish  about  1630,  and 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1637. 

Duzine,  the  twelve  patentees  of  the  settlement  of  New  Paltz,  made 
some  miles  west  of  what  is  now  Kingston  on  the  Hudson,  in  1677,  by 
Louis  Dubois  and  others.  The  ' '  Duzine  ' '  were  elected  as  the  legislative 
and  judicial  body  of  the  colony,  and  they  and  later  Duzines  maintained 
control  during  100  years. 

Dwight,  Theodore  W.  (1822-1892),  from  1858  to  1891  professor 
of  law  in  Columbian  College,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Constitu- 
tional Convention  of  1867,  and  from  1874  to  1875  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mission of  Appeals.  He  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  American 
teachers  of  law. 

Dwight,  Timothy  (1752-1817),  of  Connecticut,  divine,  poet  and 
teacher,  while  chaplain  in  the  Continental  army  composed  his  poem 
"  Columbia."  From  1795  to  1817  he  was  president  of  Yale  College  and 
did  much  to  broaden  and  advance  higher  education.  His  "Travels 
in  New  England  and  New  York  "  are  noteworthy. 

D  wight,  Timothy,  born  in  1828,  an  editor  of  the  New  Englander 
from  1856,  was  a  member  of  the  committee  to  revise  the  English  version 
of  the  Bible,  from  1878  to  1885,  and  in  1886  wTas  chosen  president  of  Yale 
University.     Resigned  1899. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  231 


E. 

E  Pluribus  Unum.  First  suggested  as  the  motto  of  the  United 
States  by  Franklin,  John  Adams  and  Jefferson,  August  10,  1776,  they 
having  been  appointed  the  committee  to  choose  a  design  for  the  Great 
Seal.  It  was  probably  suggested  by  the  similar  motto  of  the  Gentle- 
man's Magazine,  which  had  a  popular  circulation  in  the  colonies  at 
that  time.  It  occurs  in  a  Latin  poem  ascribed  to  Virgil  and  called 
"Moretuni."  It  first  appeared  on  coin  in  New  Jersey  in  1786,  when 
copper  coins  were  issued  in  that  State. 

Eads,  James  B.  (1820-1SS7),  was  noted  for  his  achievements  in 
engineering,  among  them  being  the  construction  of  the  St.  Louis  bridge, 
with  a  central  span  of  520  feet,  and  the  jetties  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River. 

Eagan,  Charles  P.,  born  in  1S41,  commissary -general  during  the 
war  with  Spain.  His  reputation  was  involved  in  the  charges  made  by 
General  Miles  relative  to  "  embalmed  beef,"  he  made  counter-accusa- 
tions, and  was  relieved  from  duty  by  McKinley  in  1899. 

Eagle,  a  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  ten  dollars.  So  called  because  of 
the  figure  of  the  national  bird,  which  is  stamped  on  the  reverse.  It  was 
authorized  in  1792  and  coinage  was  begun  in  1794.  It  has  always  been 
legal  tender  to  an  unlimited  amount.  The  first  delivery  of  eagles  was 
made  September  22,  1795,  400  in  number.  It  was  not  coined  from  1805 
to  1837.     By  Act  of  1834  its  weight  was  slightly  reduced. 

Eagle,  American,  see  appendix,  page  482. 

Early,  Jubal  Anderson  (1815-1894),  Confederate  general,  was 
attorney  for  Virginia  from  1842  to  1844  and  from  1848  to  1852,  and 
served  as  major  in  the  Mexican  War  from  J847  to  1848.  In  1861  he  be- 
came a  colonel  in  the  Confederate  army  and  fought  at  Bull  Run  and 
Williamsburg.  Promoted  to  brigadier-general  in  1863,  ne  was  a  com- 
mander at  Fredericksburg  and  Gettysburg.  Successful  at  first  in  his 
Shenandoah  campaign,  he  was  defeated  by  Sheridan  on  the  Opequan, 
at  Fisher's  Hill  and  at  Cedar  Creek,  and  by  General  Custer  at  Waynes- 
boro. For  these  defeats  he  was  retired.  He  was  president  of  the  South- 
ern Historical  Society. 

East  India  Company,  the  Dutch  trading  company  under  whose 
auspices  Henry  Hudson  in  his  vessel,  the  "Half  Moon,"  sailed  up  the 
Hudson  River  and  established  three  trading  posts.    The  object  of  the 


232  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

company  was  not  colonization,  but  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade.  In 
1621  a  similar  monopoly  was  granted  by  the  States  General  to  the  newly- 
formed  West  India  Company. 

I£aton,  Dorman  B.,  was  born  in  Vermont  in  1823.  Prominent  in 
promoting  civil  service  reform,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  by  President  Grant  in  1873  and  in  1883  by 
President  Arthur,  serving  till  1886.  He  drafted  the  national  civil  service 
act  of  1883,  and  has  written  extensively  upon  the  subject. 

Eaton,  John,  bom  in  New  Hampshire  in  1829,  served  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  was  appointed  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  serving 
from  1870  to  1886.  He  was  president  of  the  International  Congress 
of  Education  at  New  Orleans,  and  vice-president  of  the  Congress  at 
Havre,  France. 

Eaton,  John  H.  ( 1 790-1 856),  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee 
from  1818  to  1829,  was  Secretary  of  War  in  Jackson's  Cabinet  from  1829 
to  1831,  and  Minister  to  Spain  from  1836  to  1840.  He  was  one  of  Jack- 
son's closest  friends  and  political  advisers. 

Eaton,  Margaret  I,.  (1796-1879)  ("  Peggy  O'Neill  "),  a  woman  of 
great  beauty  and  of  fascinating  manner,  but  of  low  social  position,  mar- 
ried John  H.  Eaton  in  1828.  When  he  became  Secretary  of  War  she 
was  refused  recognition  by  the  families  of  the  Cabinet  members.  Her 
cause  was  supported  by  President  Jackson,  who  attempted  to  enforce  her 
recognition,  which  led  to  the  disruption  of  the  Cabinet  in  1831. 

Eaton,  Theophilus  (1591-1658),  a  prosperous  English  merchant, 
came  to  Massachusetts  in  1637,  explored  the  Connecticut  coast,  and  in 
1638  planted  a  colony  at  New  Haven,  of  which  he  became  one  of  the 
1 '  Seven  Pillars  ' '  who  formed  the  government  and  was  made  the  first 
Governor.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  formed  the  "  United 
Colonies  of  New  England  "  in  1643. 

Eaton,  William  (1764-1811),  born  in  Connecticut,  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  War  from  1780  to  1783,  and  was  Clerk  of  the  Connecticut 
House  of  Representatives  from  1791  to  1797.  He  was  Consul  at  Tunis, 
where  he  conducted  important  negotiations  from  1799  to  1803,  and  was 
U.  S.  Naval  Agent  to  the  Barbary  States  from  1804  to  1805.  In  1805  he 
conducted  the  celebrated  Derne  expedition. 

Eden,  Sir  Robert,  born  in  England,  died  in  1786.  He  was  made 
Governor  of  Maryland  in  1768,  and  ruled  with  moderation,  causing  the 
Maryland  colonists  to  hope  for  reconciliation  with  Great  Britain  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution.     In  1776  he  was  obliged  to  depart. 


'     V>  oK   Til  r     > 

AMERICAN  HISTORY.  '   233 

Edes,  Benjamin  (1732-1803),  from  1755  to  1798  was  editor  of  the 
Boston  Gazette  and  Country  Journal,  which  became  very  influential 
during  the  Revolutionary  period.  He  materially  aided  the  members  of 
the  ' '  Boston  Tea  Party  "  in  1 773. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1847.  One  of  the  most 
successful  of  inventors,  he  accomplishes  his  great  achievements  empir- 
ically by  almost  incessant  labor.  Among  his  inventions  are  the  carbon 
telephone,  the  phonograph,  the  microtasimeter,  by  which  has  been 
measured  the  heat  of  the  sun's  corona,  and  the  quadruplex  system  of 
telegraphy. 

Edmunds,  George  Franklin,  Senator,  was  born  in  Vermont  in 
1828.  He  was  a  representative  in  the  Vermont  Legislature  from  1854 
to  1859  (except  one  year),  serving  as  Speaker  for  three  years,  and  was 
president  pro  tempore  of  the  State  Senate  from  1861  to  1862.  He  drew 
up  the  resolutions  adopted  at  the  convention  for  uniting  the  Republicans 
and  the  War  Democrats.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Solomon 
Foote,  deceased,  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and  held  office  till  his  resignation 
in  1891.  In  1877  he  was  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission.  While 
in  the  Senate  he  served  as  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee,  and 
had  the  drafting  of  many  important  bills.  His  services  in  the  Senate 
were  marked  by  uprightness  of  character,  ability  to  detect  imperfections 
in  pending  legislation,  and  hostility  to  irregular  procedure. 

Edmunds  Act,  a  bill  submitted  by  Senator  Edmunds,  of  Vermont, 
and  passed  by  Congress  March  22,  1882,  to  regulate  and  restrict  the 
polygamous  institutions  of  the  Mormons  in  Utah.  Under  its  provisions 
Mormons  were  in  a  great  measure  excluded  from  local  offices,  which 
they  had  hitherto  wholly  controlled.  Many  persons  were  indicted  and 
punished  for  polygamy  also. 

Education,  Bureau  of.  This  office  was  established  in  1867  for 
the  purpose  of  collecting  statistics  showing  the  condition  and  progress 
of  education  in  the  States  and  Territories,  and  of  diffusing  such  informa- 
tion as  might  promote  the  cause  of  education  throughout  the  country. 
At  first  an  independent  office,  it  was  in  1868  made  a  bureau  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior. 

Educational  Land  Grants.  In  the  disposal  of  the  lands  of  the 
Northwest  Territory  large  tracts  were,  in  some  instances,  granted  to  the 
States  formed  therefrom,  to  be  sold  by  the  State  Legislatures  for  an 
educational  endowment ;  or  else  the  lands  were  sold  by  the  Federal 
Government,  and  a  percentage  of  the  proceeds  bestowed  upon  the  State 
for  the  erection  of  schools  and  colleges.     When  Illinois  became  a  State 


234  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

three  per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  was  granted 
for  this  purpose,  to  be  paid  as  fast  as  the  sales  were  made.  Iu  1829  the 
Legislature  borrowed  the  school  fund  for  State  purposes,  aud  failed  to 
pay  interest  thereon,  hence  the  Federal  grant  was  withheld  for  some 
years.  The  total  amount  received  was  1712,745.24.  In  Michigan,  the 
charge  of  the  public  lands  was  intrusted  first  to  the  Territorial,  and 
then,  in  1835,  to  the  State  Legislature.  In  general,  these  grants  were 
mismanaged  by  the  States. 

Edward,  Fort,  erected  on  the  Hudson  River  in  1755,  and  at  first 
called  Fort  Lyman  after  the  builder  ;  an  important  post  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  It  was  garrisoned,  in  1755,  by  the  Earl  of 
Loudoun  and  2,500  men,  and  afterward  by  General  Webb.  From  this 
fort  there  were  frequent  expeditions  against  the  French  along  the  Cana- 
dian border.  After  the  massacre  at  Fort  William  Henry,  in  1757,  the 
remnant  of  the  latter's  garrison  took  refuge  in  Fort  Edward.  The 
French  General  Montcalm  proposed  to  attack  Fort  Edward,  but  failed 
to  do  so.  During  the  winter  of  1757  the  troops  under  General  Webb, 
tired  of  inaction,  mutinied  and  caused  serious  trouble.  Captain  Havi- 
land  then  assumed  command,  and  dispatched  a  scouting  expedition 
under  Rogers  against  the  French  border  in  1758.  This  party  was 
defeated  near  Lake  George. 

Udwards,  Jonathan  (1703-1758),  born  in  Connecticut,  was  the 
most  eminent  metaphysician  America  has  ever  produced.  In  1727  he 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  until 
1750.  From  1 75 1  to  1758  he  preached  to  the  Indians  at  Stockbridge. 
He  was  a  most  prolific  writer  upon  religion  and  metaphysics,  and  in 
1754  published  his  famous  "  Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will." 

Egfgleston,  Udward,  was  born  in  1837.  He  is  a  popular  novelist 
and  the  author  of  a  series  of  biographies  of  American  Indians  and  a 
history  of  social  life  in  the  colonies. 

3$ight-Hour  I/aw.  The  Act  of  August  1,  1892,  restricts  to  eight 
hours  the  working  day  of  all  laborers  and  mechanics  employed  by  the 
United  States  Government,  by  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  by  any  con- 
tractor upon  any  of  the  public  works.  Violation  of  this  law  is  punish- 
able by  fine  and  imprisonment. 

J$l  Bracito,  N.  M.,  a  short,  but  hotly  contested,  battle  between 
Colonel  Doniphan's  army  of  900  men  and  a  force  of  1,100  Mexicans, 
under  an  officer  named  Ponce  de  Leon,  December  24,  1846.  These 
troops  charged  upon  the  Americans,  but  were  easily  repulsed  by  a  volley 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  235 

from  rifles.     This  occurred  during  Doniphan's  celebrated  expedition 
against  Chihuahua  to  join  and  relieve  General  Wool. 

331  Dorado,  meaning  "  The  Gilded  Man."  Among  the  Muysea  Indians 
of  Bogotd  it  was  customary,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  explorations  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  for  each  new  chief,  with  his  naked  body  anointed 
with  resinous  gums  and  covered  with  gold  dust,  to  head  a  solemn  pro- 
cession to  the  Lake  of  Govita,  and  to  wash  himself  therein  after  much 
impressive  ceremony.  At  the  same  time  the  assembled  savages  cast 
into  the  lake  gold  trinkets  and  precious  stones,  as  offerings  to  the 
goddess  of  the  lake,  the  drowned  wife  of  a  former  chieftain.  Hence 
the  term  el  dorado  came  to  be  applied  to  any  place  where  gold  was  re- 
ported to  exist.  Many  expeditions  were  undertaken  in  search  of  the 
mythical  el  dorado  by  the  Spaniards.  South  America,  Mexico  and 
Florida  were  all,  at  different  times,  supposed  to  be  the  country  of  the 
long  sought  el  dorado. 

flection  I,aws.  Each  colony  and  State  has  had  its  own  laws  for 
local  elections.  The  Constitution  gives  the  Congress  power  to  regulate 
Federal  elections.  Elections  to  the  Senate  were  first  put  upon  a  uni- 
form plan  by  Federal  legislation  in  1866,  and  elections  to  the  House  by 
Act  of  1875. 

Elections.  In  the  colonial  period  only  Massachusetts  (till  1691), 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  elected  their  Governors.  But  in  all  the 
people  elected  their  Representatives  in  the  Assembly,  and  this  was  done 
cither  by  ballot  or,  as  in  Virginia,  after  the  English  manner,  viva  voce. 
Election  disturbances  were  common  in  the  Southern  colonies,  though 
laws  against  violence  and  treating  prevailed.  Under  the  Constitution 
of  1787  the  Federal  Congress  did  not  pass  laws  controlling  the  election 
of  Senators  until  1866,  when  the  present  system  was  introduced,  nor  of 
Representatives,  completely,  until  1875.  The  first  Presidential  election 
was  held  in  January  and  February  of  1789.  The  times  of  election 
formerly  varied  much  in  different  States,  but  now  nearly  all  elect  their 
Congressmen  in  November. 

Electoral  Commission,  a  commission  appointed  by  an  Act  of 
Congress,  January  29,  1877,  to  investigate  certain  charges  of  fraudulent 
return  of  electoral  votes  from  Florida,  Louisiana,  Oregon  and  South 
Carolina,  during  the  Presidential  election  of  1876.  Hayes  and  Tilden 
were  the  respective  Republican  and  Democratic  candidates  for  that  term. 
The  commission  numbered  fifteen  :  three  Republican  Senators,  two 
Democratic  Senators,  three  Democratic  Representatives,  two  Republican 
Representatives,  and  five  Associate  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court. 


236  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Bradley,  the  fifth  Justice  selected,  had  the  casting  vote.  February  9, 
the  commission  sustained  the  validity  of  the  Hayes  electoral  ticket  in 
Florida,  and  later  gave  similar  decisions  regarding  the  other  States. 
The  appointment  of  a  commission  of  this  sort  was  hitherto  an  unheard- 
of  step  and  has  by  some  been  deemed  unconstitutional. 

Electors.  The  Constitution  provides  that  a  number  of  electors  for 
choosing  the  President  and  Vice-President  shall  be  appointed  by  each 
State,  equal  to  the  number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  from  that 
State,  no  one  of  them  holding  a  public  national  office.  Electors  have 
been  chosen  in  four  different  ways  :  by  joint  ballot  of  the  State  Legis- 
latures, by  a  concurrent  vote  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Legislature,  by 
a  general  vote  and  by  a  district  vote.  By  1872  the  general  ticket 
method  was  adopted  in  every  State.  An  elector  is  chosen  from  each 
Congressional  district.  Originally  the  electors  voted  for  two  persons 
without  designating  either  as  President  or  Vice-President.  The  one 
receiving  the  greatest  number  of  votes  was  President.  If  no  one  had 
a  majority  the  House  was  to  choose  from  the  five  highest.  Under 
the  Twelfth  Amendment  the  electors  vote  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  as  such,  and  if  the  election  goes  to  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives the  choice  is  from  the  three  highest  instead  of  from  the  five 
highest,  as  originally  provided. 

Eliot,  John  (1604-1690),  "the  Apostle  of  the  Indians,"  emigrated 
to  Boston  from  England  in  1631.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he  began 
studying  the  Indian  language  and  translated  portions  of  the  Gospel,  and 
in  1646  began  to  preach  to  the  Indians  without  the  aid  of  an  interpreter. 
In  1660  he  founded  an  Indian  church  at  Natick,  and  in  1663  a  catechism 
was  published,  the  first  publication  ever  made  in  the  Indian  language. 
The  same  year  he  completed  a  translation  of  both  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  is  now  a  rare  book,  commanding  a 
very  high  price. 

Elisabeth  (1533-1603) ,  Queen  of  England  from  1558  to  1603,  granted 
in  1578  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  letters  patent  to  conquer  and  possess 
any  heathen  lands  not  already  in  the  hands  of  Christians.  Gilbert's 
expedition  failed.  In  1584  Elizabeth  granted  a  similar  charter  to 
Raleigh.  In  1585,  with  the  Queen's  assistance,  Raleigh  sent  seven 
vessels  and  100  colonists  to  settle  in  Virginia,  which  had  been  taken 
in  the  Queen's  name  under  the  charter  of  1584  and  named  by  Elizabeth. 
In  1602  Gosnold  named  (one  of)  the  Elizabeth  Islands  for  her. 

Elifcabethtown  (Brockville,  near  the  Thousand  Islands).  Here,  in 
the  War  of  1812,  were  confined  some  American  prisoners.     February  7, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  237 

1813,  Major  Forsyth  crossed  the  river,  released  the  captives,  seized  some 
military  stores  and  a  number  of  British,  and  returned  without  the  loss 
of  a  man. 

Ulk  Creek,  Ind.  Terr.  Here  General  Blunt,  leading  2,400  National 
soldiers  toward  Fort  Blunt,  encountered  the  Confederate  General  Cooper 
at  the  head  of  5,000  men.  A  brief  fight  took  place  in  which  Cooper  was 
worsted. 

Ulkins,  Stephen  B.,  born  in  1841,  was  a  delegate  in  Congress 
from  New  Mexico  from  1873  to  ^77,  and  was  Secretary  of  War  from 
1 89 1  to  1893,  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  Benjamin  Harrison.  Elected 
to  United  States  Senate  1895. 

Ellicott,  Andrew  (1754-1820),  of  Pennsylvania,  surveyed  and  laid 
Out  the  City  of  Washington  in  1790,  and  was  surveyor-general  of  the 
United  States  in  1792.  In  1796  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to 
determine  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  the  Spanish 
possessions  on  the  south. 

Elliot,  Jonathan  (1784-1846),  came  to  New  York  from  England 
about  1802,  served  in  the  navy  in  1812  ;  was  editor  of  the  collection 
called  "  Elliot's  Debates  on  the  Constitution,"  and  author  of  numerous 
political  works  concerning  the  United  States. 

Elliott,  Jesse  D.  (1782-1845),  entered  the  navy  in  1804,  captured 
the  "  Detroit  "  and  "  Caledonia  "  from  the  British  at  Fort  Erie  in 
1812,  commanded  the  "  Madison  "  at  the  capture  of  York,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie. 

Ellmaker,  Amos  (1 787-1 851),  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legisla- 
ture from  1812  to  1814,  was  State  Attorney-General  from  1816  to  1819 
and  in  1832  was  the  Anti-Masonic  candidate  for  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

EUskwatawa,  born  about  1770,  a  Shawnee  Indian  prophet,  brother 
of  Tecumseh,  ordered  the  attack  at  Tippecanoe  in  181 1. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver  (1 745-1807),  was  admitted  to  the  Connecticut 
bar  in  1771,  and  became  State's  Attorney  in  1775.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1778  to  1783,  and  from  1780  to  1784 
was  a  member  of  the  Governor's  Council.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Con- 
necticut Supreme  Court  from  1784  to  1787,  when  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Federal  Convention  at  Philadelphia,  and  was  of  influence  in 
securing  the  compromise  in  the  Constitution  which  reconciled  the  in- 
terests of  the  small  States  and  the  large  States.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1789  to  1796,  when  he  resigned ;  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S. 


23S  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Supreme  Court  from  1796  to  1800,  and  Envoy  Extraordinary  to  France 
in  1799. 

Elsworth,  E.  E.  (1837-1861),  in  1861  was  appointed  colonel  of  a 
regiment  of  Zouaves,  and  was  shot  by  the  proprietor  of  a  hotel  in  Alex- 
andria, Va.,  while  tearing  down  a  Confederate  flag  from  the  hotel. 

Ulmira,  New  York,  was  the  scene  of  a  sharp  engagement,  August 
29,  1779,  between  600  Americans  led  by  Generals  Sullivan  and  Clinton, 
against  700  Tories  and  savages  that  had  fortified  themselves  at  that 
point.  The  Americans  were  successful,  and  driving  out  the  enemy  laid 
waste  the  country  and  destroyed  forty  Indian  villages. 

Emancipation  Proclamation.  During  the  first  eighteen  months  of 
the  Civil  War  President  Lincoln  listened  unmoved  to  the  clamorings  of 
abolitionists  for  an  emancipation  proclamation.  He  declared  he  would 
preserve  the  Union  without  freeing  the  slaves,  if  such  a  thing  were  pos- 
sible. September  22,  1862,  he  issued  a  preliminary  proclamation  that, 
unless  the  inhabitants  of  the  revolted  States  returned  to  their  allegiance 
by  January  1,  the  slaves  should  be  declared  free.  This  had  no  effect. 
January  1,  1863,  the  proclamation  was  issued  declaring  the  freedom  of 
slaves  in  all  the  States  which  had  seceded  except  fort}T-eight  counties  of 
West  Virginia,  seven  counties  in  Virginia,  including  the  cities  of  Nor- 
folk and  Portsmouth,  and  thirteen  parishes  of  Louisiana,  including 
New  Orleans.  These  districts  were  practically  under  the  control  of  the 
Union  army.  Lincoln  expected  the  proclamation  to  take  effect  grad- 
ually. Its  legal  effect  has  been  disputed  ;  its  practical  effect  was 
enormous. 

Embargo,  a  prohibition  of  commerce  by  national  authority,  laid  in 
various  forms  and  at  various  times  from  1794  until  1815.  Upon  the 
declaration  of  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain  in  1793,  each 
government  ordered  the  seizure  of  neutral  vessels  bound  for  the  ports 
of  the  other.  This  caused  great  excitement  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  first  embargo  was  laid  March  26,  1794,  to  continue  for  thirty  days 
and  afterward  prolonged  to  sixty.  In  consequence  of  the  depredations 
of  England  and  France  upon  the  neutral  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  the  non-importation  act  was  passed  April  18,  1806,  prohibiting 
trade  with  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  but  it  did  not  go  into  effect 
until  December  4.  On  December  22,  1807,  Congress,  at  the  instance  of 
Mr.  Jefferson,  passed  an  embargo  act,  prohibiting  the  sailing  of  any 
merchant  vessel  from  any  American  port,  save  coasters.  The  act  was 
extensively  evaded.  The  embargo  failed  to  bring  either  England  or 
France  to  terms,  and  meanwhile  it  inflicted  great  injury  on  the  shipping 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  239 

interest  and  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States.  On  February  28, 
1809,  an  act  was  passed  repealing  the  embargo,  and  replacing  it  by  a 
non-intercourse  law  which  forbade  British  or  French  vessels  to  enter 
American  ports.     Another  embargo  act  was  passed  in  1813,  during  the 


Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo  (1803-1882),  called  the  sage  of  Concord, 
an  eminent  American  poet  and  philosopher,  was  born  in  Boston.  He 
was  ordained  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel  in  1829,  but  resigned  his  pastor- 
ate in  1832,  because  he  could  not  sympathize  with  the  formalities  prac- 
ticed in  the  Church.  He  then  began  his  career  as  an  eminent  lecturer, 
giving  courses  of  lectures  for  the  most  part  upon  biographical  and 
philosophical  subjects.  He  contributed  largely  to  periodicals  and  pub- 
lished numerous  works  in  literature  and  philosophy.  His  influence 
upon  the  more  thoughtful  portion  of  the  American  public  has  never 
been  surpassed.  He  resided  in  Concord,  Mass.,  during  all  the  latter 
part  of  his  life. 

Emory,  William  K.,  born  in  181 1,  was  one  of  the  Mexico  and  U.  S. 
boundary  commissioners,  and  served  with  distinction  during  the  Civil 
War,  at  Yorktown,  Sabine  Crossroads,  Fisher's  Hill  and  Cedar  Creek, 
attaining  the  rank  of  major-general. 

Endicott,  John  (1588  ?-i665),  arrived  from  England  in  1628  to  as- 
sume the  government  of  the  colony  at  Salem,  where  he  continued  Gov- 
ernor till  1630,  at  which  time  the  government  of  the  Massachusetts 
Company  and  colony  was  transferred  to  New  England.  From  1641  to 
1644  and  in  1650  he  was  Deputy  Governor,  and  was  made  Governor  in 
1644,  1649,  an(*  fr°m  165 1  to  1665  except  1654,  when  he  was  again 
Deputy  Governor.  In  1645  he  was  appointed  to  the  highest  command 
in  the  colonial  army,  and  in  1658  was  made  president  of  the  colonial 
commissioners.  He  was  a  man  of  firm  convictions  but  of  choleric  dis- 
position, who  tolerated  no  divergence  from  the  strictly  orthodox  in 
religion,  and  meted  out  a  severe  type  of  justice  to  all  who  disobeyed 
the  laws  of  the  colony. 

Endieott,  William  C,  born  in  1827,  was  a  Judge  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Supreme  Court  from  1S73  to  l882,  and  from  1885  to  1889  was 
Secretary  of  War  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet. 

England,  John  (1786-1842),  born  in  Ireland,  was  made  Bishop  of 
North  and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  in  1850,  and  was  the  first  Cath- 
olic clergyman  invited  to  preach  in  the  Hall  of  Representatives  3t 
Washington. 


24o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

English,  William  H.,  born  in  1822,  was  secretary  of  the  Indiana 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1850,  Speaker  of  the  State  Legislature  in 
1851,  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1853  *°  1861,  and  the  Democratic  candi- 
date for  Vice-President  in  1880.     Died  1896. 

"  Enterprise,"  an  American  brig  of  fourteen  guns,  Captain  Burrows. 
September  5,  1813,  the  brig,  while  sailing  off  the  Maine  coast,  met  the 
British  brig  •' '  Boxer, ' '  also  of  fourteen  guns.  Both  vessels  opened  fire 
at  the  same  time.  The  wind  was  light  and  the  cannonading  very  de- 
structive. The  ' '  Enterprise, ' '  crossing  the  bows  of  the  ' '  Boxer, ' '  gave 
such  a  raking  fire  that  the  latter  surrendered.  The  battle  lasted  forty 
minutes.  Both  commanders  were  killed.  Two  days  later  the  prize  was 
taken  into  Portland  harbor. 

Entomological  Commission,  a  commission  created  by  Act  of 
Congress,  March  3,  1877,  and  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Inte- 
rior Department. 

Epworth  league,  an  organization  of  young  people  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  formed  in  1889.  There  are  now  (1893)10,972 
local  leagues  and  over  650,000  members. 

Equal  Rights  Party,  1884,  the  title  assumed  by  a  party  headed 
by  Belva  Lockwood  in  1884.  Belva  Lockwood  was  its  self-nominated 
Presidential  candidate,  her  platform  advocating  woman  suffrage. 

Era  of  Good  Feeling,  a  name  applied  to  the  period  between  1817  and 
1823,  during  Monroe's  administration,  when  national  political  contests 
were  suspended,  the  Democrats  having  a  triumphant  majority  and  the 
Federalist  party  being  almost  extinct.  The  War  of  181 2  was  ended  and 
the  new  issues  of  tariff  and  internal  improvement  had  not  arisen.  Mon- 
roe's inaugural  address  soothed  the  few  Federalists  and  the  leaders  of 
both  parties  joined  in  receiving  the  President  and  announcing  the  "  era 
of  good  feeling." 

Eric  the  Red,  a  Norwegian  who  is  reported  to  have  been  banished 
from  Iceland  and  to  have  gone  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  about  981,  in 
which  he  landed  at  a  place  previously  discovered  by  Gunniborn.  On 
his  return  three  years  later  he  called  it  Greenland.  Thither  about  985 
he  led  an  expedition  and  planted  a  colony.  About  986  a  vessel  on  its 
way  to  the  settlement  wandered  from  its  course  and  landed  on  a  coast 
nine  days'  sail  south  of  Greenland,  and  in  1000  a.  d.,  a  son  of  Eric  the 
Red  made  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  this  region  and  named  it  Vinland, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  somewhere  on  the  New  England  coast. 
Authorities  differ  as  to  the  authenticity  of  this  account,  but  the  general 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  241 

opinion  prevails  that  some  such  discoveries  were  made,  though  the  de- 
tails are  not  reliable. 

Ericsson,  John  (1803-1889),  born  in  Sweden,  early  in  life  gave 
promise  of  great  achievements  in  invention.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1839,  and  in  1841  produced  the  war  steamer  "Princeton," 
which  revolutionized  the  navies  of  the  world.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
was  employed  in  building  monitors  ;  the  first  of  which,  the  "  Monitor," 
destroyed  the  Confederate  ironclad  "  Merrimac  "  in  1862.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  great  number  of  valuable  inventions,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  connected  with  engines  and  naval  equipments. 

Erie  Canal,  the  most  important  artificial  water-course  in  the  United 
States.  Its  construction  was  conceived  by  De  Witt  Clinton  in  1812  and 
begun  as  a  State  work  in  1817,  being  completed  in  1825.  It  extends  363 
miles  through  New  York  State,  through  what  was,  at  the  time  of  its 
commencement,  a  wilderness,  from  the  Hudson  River  at  Albany  and 
Troy  to  Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo.  Clinton  had  at  first  intended  it  should  be 
a  national  enterprise,  and  from  the  interest  he  displayed,  he  was  deputed 
with  others  to  lay  the  plan  before  the  General  Government,  but  without 
success.  It  was  executed  instead  as  a  State  work,  chiefly  during  his  Gov- 
ernorship of  New  York.  It  contributed  enormously  to  the  development 
of  the  West  and  of  the  trade  prosperity  of  New  York  City  and  State. 
Property  along  the  canal  has  increased  enormously  and  the  tolls  have 
been  a  valuable  addition  to  the  State  revenue. 

Erie,  Fort,  Can.,  during  the  War  of  1812,  was  abandoned  and  fired 
with  all  its  stores,  May  28,  1813,  by  orders  of  General  Vincent.  The 
same  day  the  Americans  crossed  the  Niagara  and  took  possession  of  the 
ruins.  After  the  Americans  had  withdrawn  from  the  Canadian  shore, 
the  British  rebuilt  the  fort  and  stationed  there  170  men  under  command 
of  Major  Buck.  July  3,  1813,  General  Jacob  Brown,  preparatory  to  an 
invasion  of  Canada,  invested  the  fort,  and  on  demand  it  surrendered. 
The  fort  was  now  strengthened,  and  made  capable  of  enduring  a  siege. 
After  the  battle  of  Niagara,  the  British  advanced  against  the  American 
position.  From  August  7  to  14  the  bombardment  was  almost  incessant. 
At  two  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  fifteenth,  the  British,  1,500  strong, 
tried  to  surprise  the  Americans.  Attacks  were  made  upon  three  points, 
but  one  only  was  successful.  The  main  bastion  of  the  fort  was  captured 
and  held  against  all  attack.  Suddenly  its  magazine  blew  up  with  tre- 
mendous force,  the  attack  was  renewed  and  the  British  retreated,  leaving 
221  dead,  174  wounded  and  186  prisoners.  The  Americans  lost,  all  told, 
137  men.  The  siege  still  continued,  the  attacking  works  were  continu- 
ally pushed  nearer  ;  but  on  September  17  General  Brown,  in  charge  at 
Vol.  V.— 16 


242  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  fort,  planned  a  sortie  to  destroy  the  British  works.  An  attack  in 
three  divisions  was  arranged  and  executed  undercover  of  a  fog.  It  was 
completely  successful.  The  works  were  captured  and  destroyed,  the 
British  broke  camp  and  gave  up  the  siege,  leaving  behind  over  800  men 
killed,  captured  or  wounded.  When  the  Americans  finally  abandoned 
Canada,  Fort  Erie  was  blown  up  November  5,   1814,  and  never  rebuilt. 

Erskine,  David  Montagu,  Baron  (1 776-1855),  was  British  Min- 
ister to  the  United  States  from  1806  to  1809  (being  then  simply  Mr. 
Erskine).  In  1809  he  officially  announced  that  atonement  would  be 
made  for  the  "  Chesapeake  "  outrage,  and  that  the  British  orders  in 
council  would  be  withdrawn,  provided  the  American  embargo  and  non- 
intercourse  acts  ceased  as  to  Great  Britain.  In  consequence  of  this, 
President  Madison  proclaimed  that,  on  June  10,  1809,  all  interdicts 
against  Great  Britain  would  cease.  The  British  Ministry  repudiated 
the  Erskine  arrangements  and  declared  them  unauthorized.  President 
Madison  was,  therefore,  compelled  to  restore  the  suspension  of  inter-3 
course  on  August  9. 

"Ussex,"  U.  S.  frigate  of  thirty-two  guns,  Captain  Porter,  was  at- 
tacked on  August  13,  181 2,  by  the  "  Alert,"  a  twenty-gun  sloop-of-war. 
One  broadside  from  the  "  Essex  "  nearly  sunk  the  "  Alert,"  and  caused 
its  surrender.  Late  in  the  year  the  ' '  Essex ' '  started  on  an  independent 
cruise  in  the  Pacific.  Here  it  did  noble  service.  It  captured  nearly 
every  British  whaling  vessel  off  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  and 
deprived  the  enemy  of  $2,500,000  worth  of  property  and  360  seamen. 
In  February,  1814,  it  was  surprised  while  in  the  port  of  Valparaiso  by 
the  appearance  of  two  British  men-of-war,  the  "Phcebe,"  thirty-six 
guns,  and  the  "Cherub,"  twenty-two  guns.  On  March  28,  1814,  the 
"  Essex  "  set  sail  for  the  open  sea,  and  was  at  once  attacked  by  the 
enemy.  It  was  a  desperate  and  bloody  battle.  After  two-thirds  of  its 
men  had  been  killed  or  disabled,  including  every  officer  but  one,  and 
with  his  vessel  a  helpless  wreck,  Captain  Porter  surrendered. 

Ivssex  Junto,  the  name  applied  first  by  John  Hancock  in  178 1  to  a 
group  of  leaders  of  Essex  County,  Massachusetts,  and  their  adherents. 
They  were  upholders  of  the  commercial  interests  of  the  country,  and 
desired  a  stronger  Federal  Government.  Upon  the  development  of  the 
Federal  party  they  at  once  fell  in  line  and  were  extreme  members  of 
that  party.  President  Adams  accused  them  of  trying  to  force  a  war 
with  France  in  1798-99,  and  thus  they  acquired  a  national  reputation. 
During  the  embargo  period  the  name  became  a  synonym  for  New  Eng- 
land Federalism.  Among  its  number  were  Fisher  Ames,  Cabot,  tht 
Lowells,  Pickering,  Theophilus  Parsons,  Higginson  and  Goodhue. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  243 

Estaing:,  Charles  H.  T.,  Count  d'  (1729-1794),  a  French  naval 
officer,  commanded  the  fleet  sent  in  177C  to  aid  the  colonies  against 
Great  Britain,  and  brought  Gerard,  the  first  French  Envoy  to  the 
United  States.  He  planned  an  attack  upon  the  British  fleet  in  Newport 
harbor,  but  the  campaign  was  not  successful,  and  in  1779  with  General 
Lincoln  he  attempted  to  take  the  city  of  Savannah  by  assault.  He  cap- 
tured a  number  of  British  vessels,  and  on  his  return  to  France  he  pre- 
vailed upon  the  Ministry  to  send  6,000  men  to  America  under  Count  de 
Rochambeau. 

Eustis,  James  B.  (1S34-1899),  belonged  to  the  Louisiana  branch  of 
the  famous  Eustis  family.  Was  U.  S.  Senator  from  1879  to  1891,  and 
Minister  to  France  from  1893  to  1897.     Died  1899. 

I$U8tis,  William  (1 753-1825),  represented  Massachusetts  in  Con- 
gress from  1801  to  1805,  and  from  1820  to  1823.  From  1809  to  1813  he 
was  Secretary  of  War  in  Madison's  Cabinet.  From  1814  to  1818  he  was 
Minister  to  Holland,  and  from  1823  to  1825  was  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Eutaw  Springs,  Battle  of,  September  8,  1781.  Shortly  after  the 
capture  of  Ninety-Six,  Greene  moved  upon  the  British  so  secretly  they 
were  not  aware  of  his  presence.  At  Eutaw  Springs  he  came  upon 
them.  At  4  a.  m.  on  September  8,  Greene  attacked  the  British  in  his 
usual  order.  The  militia  in  the  first  line  under  Marion  and  Pickens  did 
gallant  service  and  was  supported  by  the  regulars  in  the  second  line. 
A  bayonet  charge  followed,  the  British  were  routed  and  many  fell  or  were 
made  prisoners.  A  little  later  the  retreating  British  took  shelter  in  a 
brick  house.  Greene's  artillery  was  brought  to  bear  upon  it  in  vain.  The 
gunners  were  shot  and  the  pieces  captured.  A  cavalry  charge  by 
Colonel  Washington  was  repulsed  and  that  officer  was  taken  prisoner. 
Thus  there  were  two  engagements.  In  the  first  Greene  won  a  brilliant 
victory,  in  the  second  he  lost  many  of  his  best  men.  The  total  Ameri- 
can loss  was  554,  that  of  the  British  1,000.  Again  a  tactical  defeat 
proved  to  the  Americans  a  strategic  victory.  In  the  course  of  the  night 
the  British  retreated  to  Charleston  in  such  haste  as  to  leave  their 
wounded. 

Evans,  Sir  George  de  I,acy  (1 787-1870),  led  the  British  soldiers 
who  destroyed  the  public  buildings  in  Washington  in  18 14,  and  served 
at  Bladensburg,  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans. 

Bvarts,  William  Maxwell,  lawyer  and  Senator,  was  born  in  Boston 
in  1818.  In  i860  he  was  chairman  of  the  New  York  delegation  to  the 
Republican  convention.     In  1865  and  1866  he  established  the  unconsti- 


244  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tutionality  of  State  taxation  of  U.  S.  bonds  or  National  Bank  stock,  and 
in  1868  was  counsel  for  President  Johnson  in  the  impeachment  trial. 
From  1868  to  1869  he  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
1872  was  U.  S.  counsel  on  the  "Alabama  "  claims  at  Geneva.  In  1877 
he  was  the  Republican  counsel  before  the  Electoral  Commission,  and 
was  Secretary  of  State  from  1877  to  1881,  in  the  Cabinet  of  President 
Hayes.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  International  Monetary  Conference 
in  1881,  and  from  1885  to  1891  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  New  York. 

Everett,  Edward  (1794-1865),  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
orator  and  scholar,  was  born  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  in  1813  was  ordained  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Boston,  but  resigned  in  1814.  In  1819  he  accepted  a  position 
as  professor  of  Greek  at  Harvard  College  and  held  it  until  1829,  when 
he  became  editor  of  the  North  America?i  Review.  From  1836  to  1840 
he  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  chosen  by  the  Whigs.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Great  Britain,  and  served  from  1841 
to  1845,  when  he  became  president  of  Harvard,  resigning  in  1849.  He 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  four  months  in  1852  at  the  close  of  President 
Fillmore's  administration,  and  from  1853  to  1854  was  a  member  of  the 
U.  S.  Senate.  In  i860  the  "  Constitutional  Union  party  "  made  him  its 
candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 

Evertseti,  Cornells,  a  Dutch  naval  officer,  born  in  Zealand.  In 
command  of  a  squadron  he  secured  the  surrender  of  New  York  by  the 
British  in  1673,  changed  its  name  to  New  Orange,  and  re-established  the 
old  form  of  government,  with  Colve  as  Governor. 

Ewell,  Richard  S.  (1817-1872),  general,  was  graduated  at  the 
U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1840,  and  served  in  the  Mexican  War  from 
1846  to  1848.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  a  brigadier-general, 
fought  at  Blackburn's  Ford  and  at  Bull  Run,  and  was  promoted  major- 
general  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign.  He  served  with  distinction  at 
Malvern  Hill  and  at  Cedar  Mountain.  In  1863  he  commanded  Jackson's 
troops,  and  fought  at  Gettysburg,  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania 
Court  House.  He  surrendered  to  Sheridan  in  1865  at  Sailor's  Creek 
with  his  entire  force  of  6,000  men. 

lowing,  Thomas  (1789-1871),  statesman,  born  in  Ohio,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  181 6.  From  1831  to  1837  he  represented  Ohio  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate,  where  he  supported  Clay's  tariff  system,  advocated  the 
recharter  of  the  U.  S.  Bank,  and  also  the  M  Force  Bill,"  and  opposed 
the  removal  of  the  deposits  from  the  U.  S.  Bank.  In  1841  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Harrison's  Cabinet,  and  was  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  245 

first  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  serving  in  Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to 
1850.  From  1850  to  1851  he  was  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  succeeding  Thomas 
Corwin. 

Excise  I^aw.  The  first  excise  law  was  passed  after  an  excited  de- 
bate in  1790,  Secretary  Hamilton  insisting  upon  the  necessity  of  such  an 
enactment.  It  levied  a  tax  varying  from  nine  to  twenty-five  cents  upon 
every  gallon  of  liquors  distilled  in  the  United  States  and  a  higher  rate 
for  imported  liquors.  Iyower  rates  were  established  in  1792.  The  op- 
position was  strong  throughout  the  country,  culminating  in  the  Whiskey 
Insurrection  in  Pennsylvania  in  1794.  During  Jefferson's  administration 
the  excise  was  abolished,  but  was  revived  in  1813  during  the  War  of 
1812,  imposing  a  tax  on  liquor,  sugar,  salt,  carriages,  and  instruments 
of  exchange,  and  a  stamp  duty.  In  181 7  these  duties  were  repealed 
and  no  excise  duty  was  levied  until  1862,  during  the  Civil  War.  This 
system  embraced  taxation  upon  occupations  and  trades,  sales,  gross  re- 
ceipts and  dividends,  incomes  of  individuals,  firms  and  corporations, 
manufactures,  legacies,  liquors,  tobacco,  distributive  shares  and  succes- 
sions.    (See  Internal  Revenue.) 

Exectitiye.  The  executives  of  the  colonials  were  their  Governors, 
appointed  by  the  crown  in  most  colonies,  elected  by  the  people  in  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut  and  in  early  Massachusetts.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution,  after  the  royal  Governors  had  ceased  to  control,  and 
before  the  new  Constitutions  were  set  up,  the  executive  was  the  com- 
mittee or  council  of  safety.  The  States,  in  making  their  Constitutions, 
mostly  instituted  Governors,  though  some  created  an  executive  council, 
forming  an  executive  like  that  of  Switzerland.  From  1775  to  1789 
the  U.  S.  Government  had  no  other  executive  than  Congress.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  gave  executive  powers  to  the  President,  the  Senate 
sharing  in  the  executive  powers  of  appointment  and  treaty  making. 
There  was  talk  in  the  convention  of  a  plural  executive,  but  a  single 
head  was  finally  resolved  on.  Executive  departments  had  already  come 
into  existence.  The  Continental  Congress  at  first  managed  all  execu- 
tive business  through  committees.  Later,  commissions  were  formed, 
partly  of  its  own  members,  partly  of  others.  Early  in  1781  Congress 
organized  departments  under  single  heads — the  Secretary  for  Foreign 
Affairs  the  Superintendent  of  Finance,  the  Secretary  of  War  and  the 
Secretary  of  Marine. 

Exhibitions.  The  first  exhibition  of  national  importance  held 
in  the  United  States  was  one  held  in  New  York  in  1853,  the  next  the  Cen- 
tennial of  1876,  held  at  Philadelphia,  both  as  an  international  exposi- 


246  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tion  of  this  country's  progress  in  its  hundreth  year  of  existence  and  an 
anniversary.  The  Centennial  was  under  the  management  of  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  and  was  open  from  May  10  to  November  10.  Many 
foreign  nations  were  represented.  The  exhibition  cost  over  $15,000,000. 
The  International  Cotton  Exposition  was  held  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  from 
October  5  to  December  31,  1881.  It  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Edward 
Atkinson,  of  Boston,  and  was  designed  to  show  the  progress  in  the 
manipulation  of  cotton.  The  Southern  Exposition  opened  at  Louisville, 
Ky.,  August  1,  1883,  and  continued  100  days.  The  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress  April  25,  1890.  The  dedica- 
tion ceremonies  took  place  October  21,  1892,  and  the  opening  May  1, 
1893.  The  exposition  terminated  October  30.  The  total  cost  was  about 
$25,000,000.  The  exposition  was  held  at  Jackson  Park,  Chicago,  nearly 
every  nation  being  represented.  The  Midwinter  Exhibition  in  Califor- 
nia, 1893-94,  is  also  to  be  noted,  and  the  Omaha  Exposition  of  1898. 

Expansion,  see  appendix,  page  482. 

Expatriation.  There  is  no  law  in  the  United  States  permitting  the 
voluntary  expatriation  of  a  citizen.  Expatriation  has  been  pleaded  be- 
fore the  Supreme  Court  frequently,  but  has  been  allowed  in  no  case. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  freedom  of  emigration  involved  the  right  of 
voluntary  expatriation,  and  many  learned  authorities  have  argued  that 
such  is  the  fact,  and  that  expatriation  is  a  natural  right.  So  far  as  cus- 
tom and  usage  sanctions  the  right  has  been  accorded,  the  United  States 
Government  having  in  a  number  of  instances  refused  protection  to 
both  native-born  and  naturalized  citizens,  on  the  ground  that  they  have 
expatriated  themselves. 

Expenditures.  In  1794  the  total  expenditures  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment amounted  to  $6,300,000,  in  1814  they  temporarily  ran  up  to 
$34,700,000.  In  1834  they  were  $18,600,000  ;  in  1854,  $55,000,000.  During 
the  war  they  ran  up  to  $1,295,000,000  in  1865.  Then  they  declined 
to  $237,000,000  in  1878.  During  the  ensuing  decade  they  averaged 
$260,000,000  per  annum.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1893,  they 
were  $459,400,000.  Of  the  annual  expenditures,  interest  charges  have 
sometimes  been  a  large  amount.  In  times  of  peace,  expenditures  for 
the  army  have  usually  been  about  two-thirds  those  for  the  civil  depart- 
ments of  government  work,  those  for  the  navy  about  two-thirds  those 
of  the  army.  Since  1888  pensions  have  been  the  largest  item,  amount- 
ing to  $140,000,000  annually. 

Exports.  The  specie  value  of  American  exports  in  1790  was 
$20,200,000.  Except  in  years  of  war  and  embargo  exports  steadily  rose 
until  in  1836  they  amounted  to  $129,000,000.     In  i860  they  amounted  to 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  247 

$400,000,000 ;  in  1870  to  $451,000,000  ;  in  1880  to  $871,000,000  ;  in  1892 
to  $1,113,000,000  ;  in  1899  nearly  $2,000,000,000. 

Express.  This  system  of  transportation  was  begun  March  4,  1839, 
by  William  F.  Harnden,  who  established  express  communication  be- 
tween New  York  and  Boston.  Alvin  Adams  and  P.  B.  Burke  started 
the  Adams  Express  Company  in  1840.  The  Wells-Fargo  Company  was 
started  in  1845,  tne  United  States  Express  Company  in  1853. 

Expunging  Resolution.  In  1834  a  resolution  of  censure  had 
been  adopted  by  Congress  against  President  Jackson  for  removing  cer- 
tain money  deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States.  This  resolu- 
tion was  expunged  by  the  ' '  Expunging  Resolution ' '  of  January  16, 
1837,  Senator  Benton  being  the  prime  mover  toward  its  adoption. 
Clay,  Webster  and  Calhoun  opposed  it  with  vehemence.  A  black  line 
was  drawn  in  the  Journal  around  the  resolution  of  censure,  and  the 
words  "  Expunged  by  order  of  the  Senate  this  sixteenth  day  of  January, 
1837,"  inserted. 

Extradition,  International.  The  first  treaty  of  the  United  States 
which  made  any  provision  for  extradition  was  the  Jay  Treaty  of  1794,  and 
Congress  made  no  law  to  carry  this  into  effect.  After  this,  the  first  ex- 
tradition treaty  concluded  by  the  United  States  was  the  treaty  of  1842  with 
Great  Britain.  In  1875,  in  the  case  of  a  criminal  who  had  committed  an 
offense  not  mentioned  in  the  treaty,  the  United  States  procured  his  extra- 
dition on  another  charge,  then  tried  him  on  the  first.  Great  Britain 
protested  against  this.  In  many  ways  the  treaty  of  1842  had  become  in- 
applicable to  modern  conditions.  In  1886  the  Phelps-Rosebery  Conven- 
tion, which  aimed  to  substitute  a  more  satisfactory  system,  was  rejected 
by  the  Senate.  But  in  1889  the  Senate  ratified  the  Blaine-Pauncefote  Con- 
vention, which  accomplished  the  desired  results.  Extradition  treaties 
have  been  concluded  with  all  the  leading  countries  of  the  world,  and 
most  of  the  minor  countries  :  France,  1843  ;  Hawaii,  1849  J  Switzer- 
land, 1850  ;  Prussia,  1852,  etc. 

Extradition,  Interstate.  The  New  England  Confederation  of  1643 
provided  for  the  mutual  extradition  of  criminals,  and  so  did  the  Articles 
of  Confederation.  The  Constitution  provides  that  a  person  charged 
with  crime  in  any  State,  who  flees  to  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of 
the  Governor  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  given  up.  An  act  of 
1793  provided  the  process. 

Ezra  Chapel,  Ga.  Here,  July  28,  1864,  Hood,  leading  about  30,000 
Confederates  from  his  intrenchments  in  Atlanta,  which  was  then  in- 
vested by  Sherman's  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  advanced  against  the 


248  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Federal  troops,  consisting  of  three  corps  under  Sherman  and  Logan. 
The  Federals  were  engaged  in  throwing  up  earthworks,  but  stopped 
hastily  and  received  Hood's  charge  stanchly.  Hood  was  defeated  with 
great  loss  and  forced  back  to  his  fortifications  within  the  town. 


Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pities,  Va.,  a  two  days'  engagement  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign,  May  31,  June  1,  1862,  between  the  Confederates, 
numbering  about  35,000  men  under  Johnston,  and  a  detachment  of  some 
11,000  troops  of  McClellan's  army  under  Casey.  That  leader  had  been 
sent  across  the  Chickahominy  River,  and  was  accordingly  isolated  from 
the  main  army.  Johnston  decided  to  attack  him.  He  therefore  sent 
Hill  and  Longstreet  against  Casey's  left  flank  and  Gustavus  Smith 
against  his  right.  Casey  was  overwhelmed,  and  retreated  to  Couch's 
position  at  Seven  Pines,  where  the  latter  was  fiercely  defending  him- 
self and  waiting  for  reinforcements  from  Heintzelman.  The  Confeder- 
ates were  forcing  their  way  down  along  the  Chickahominy  to  Bottom's 
Bridge,  when  they  were  intercepted  by  Sumner's  batteries  and  routed 
with  great  slaughter. 

Fairehild,  Charles  S.,  born  in  1842,  was  Attorney-General  of  New 
York  from  1876  to  1878.  He  was  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1887  to  1889. 

Fairehild,  Lucius,  born  in  1831,  was  Governor  of  Wisconsin  from 
1865  to  1871.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Liverpool  from  1872  to  1878, 
Consul-General  in  Paris  from  1878  to  1880,  and  U.  S.  Minister  to  Spain 
from  1880  to  1882.     Died  1896. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  sixth  Baron  (1691-1782),  came  from  England 
to  an  inherited  estate  of  over  five  million  acres  in  Virginia,  where  he 
lived  from  1745  to  1782.  He  was  a  patron  and  intimate  friend  of 
Washington. 

Falling  Waters,  W.  Va.,  a  smart  skirmish  between  Federal  and 
Confederate  troops  under  Generals  Patterson  and  Johnston  respectively. 
This  occurred  early  in  July,  1861,  during  Patterson's  campaign  in  West 
Virginia. 

Faneuil  Hall,  the  gift  to  Boston  (1742)  of  Peter  Faneuil,  a  mer- 
chant. The  hall  was  begun  in  1740.  It  was  designed  to  be  both  a  mar- 
ket-house and  a  place  of  public  meeting.     In  1761  it  was  destroyed  by 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  249 

fire.  It  was  restored  in  1763,  and  was  used  as  a  theater  during  the 
British  occupation  of  Boston,  in  1775.  In  1805  it  was  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  a  third  story  and  an  increase  in  width.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion it  was  the  usual  meeting  place  of  patriots,  and  was  the  scene  of 
many  stirring  debates  and  important  resolutions.  It  has  been  called 
the  "  Cradle  of  American  Liberty." 

Fannin,  James  W.  (1800-1836),  of  Texas,  commanded  a  force  in 
1836  at  Coleta  River  against  General  Urrea.  After  his  surrender  357  of 
their  number,  including  Fannin,  were  shot  by  the  Mexicans. 

Farewell  Address.  Upon  Washington's  retirement  in  1796  he 
adopted  the  suggestion  made  him  by  Madison,  and  delivered  a  farewell 
address  to  the  American  people,  partly  from  Madison's  draft  of  1792  and 
partly  from  a  draft  made  by  Hamilton  and  himself.  Its  most  important 
paragraph  was  a  recommendation  of  abstention  from  interference  in 
European  affairs.  Andrew  Jackson  also  delivered  a  farewell  address  in 
1837. 

Faribault,  John  P.  (i769?-i86o),  a  pioneer  of  great  influence  over 
the  Indians  among  whom  he  traded  ;  was  the  first  to  cultivate  land  west 
of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Des  Moines. 

Farmers'  Alliance,  an  anti-secret,  national  organization  of  agri- 
culturists for  mutual  improvement  and  furtherance  of  political  ends.  It 
was  founded  in  New  York  in  1873  an^  spread  rapidly  westward.  Alli- 
ances were  at  first  State  organizations.  The  national  organization  was 
completed  in  1889  with  the  "  Agricultural  Wheel  "  under  the  name  of 
"  National  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union."  Annual  conven- 
tions have  been  held  at  different  places,  the  most  noted  at  Ocala  in  1890. 
The  Alliance  is  opposed  to  national  banks,  the  alien  ownership  of  land, 
special  privileges  and  Federal  election  laws. 

Farmington,  Miss.,  occupied  by  General  Pope's  brigade  of  Hal- 
leck's  Federal  army,  May  20,  1862.  Halleck  was  engaged  in  concen- 
trating his  forces  about  Corinth,  and  Pope  was  ordered  to  push  on  and 
occupy  Farmington.  Buell  was  to  join  Pope  at  this  place,  but  was 
delayed,  and  Pope's  advance  was  therefore  slow.  Two  brief,  but  severe, 
engagements  took  place  May  3  and  9,  before  Pope  finally  joined  Buell. 
The  Confederates  were  defeated. 

Farmington,  Tenn.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  during  Wheeler's 
raid  through  Tennessee.  At  Farmington  Wheeler  fell  in  with  Crook, 
leading  a  strong  National  force,  who  effectually  stopped  his  ravaging  in 
that  neighborhood  by  defeating  him. 


250  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow  (1801-1870),  the  most  famous  naval 
hero  of  modern  times,  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  at  the  age  of  nine,  rn 
the  War  of  181 2,  while  a  mere  boy,  he  was  intrusted  with  important 
missions  ;  but  in  the  long  period  of  peace  he  found  little  opportunity 
for  distinction.  A  Southerner  by  birth,  he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Union,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  first  year's  fighting  in  the  war  he  was 
assigned  to  important  command.  He  had  charge  of  the  flotilla  in  the 
approach  to  New  Orleans  in  April,  1862  ;  his  fame  was  founded  on  the 
passage  of  the  river  past  the  forts  on  April  24,  which  caused  the  fall  of 
the  city  and  its  delivery  into  the  hands  of  the  Federals  under  Butler. 
On  June  28  he  ran  the  batteries  of  Vicksburg,  and  the  following  year, 
having  meanwhile  received  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  he  contributed  to 
the  fall  of  Port  Hudson  and  the  final  opening  of  the  river.  The  greatest 
event  in  Farragut's  life,  and  one  of  the  greatest  naval  battles  in  modern 
times,  was  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  on  August  5,  1864.  Farragut's 
oversight  of  the  contest  while  lashed  to  the  mast  of  his  flag-ship,  the 
4 '  Hartford, ' '  has  become  one  of  the  most  familiar  episodes  of  the  war. 
The  office  of  vice-admiral  was  specially  created  for  him  in  December, 
1864,  and  that  of  admiral  in  1866. 

Faulkner,  Charles  J.  (1806-1S84),  author  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law  of  1850,  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  Virginia  from  1 851  to  1859, 
Minister  to  France  from  1859  to  1861,  when  he  was  recalled  as  disloyal. 
He  was  a  U.  S.  Representative  from  1875  to  1877. 

Federal  Hall,  in  New  York,  the  building  upon  the  balcony  of 
which  George  Washington  received  the  oath  and  made  his  first  in- 
augural address,  April  30,  1789.  The  hall  had  been  fitted  up  for  the 
use  of  the  first  Congress. 

"  Federalist,' '  a  collection  of  papers  first  published  in  the  Inde- 
pendent Journal,  of  New  York  City,  by  Hamilton,  Madison  and  Jay, 
from  October,  1787,  until  March,  1788.  They  were  eighty-five  in  num- 
ber and  appeared  under  a  joint  signature,  "  A  Citizen  of  New  York,"  at 
first,  afterward  "  Publius."  The  first  of  these  essays  appeared  immedi- 
ately after  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  They  were  in  explanation 
and  defense  of  the  new  system  of  government.  Gouverneur  Morris 
was  also  invited  to  take  part,  but  was  prevented  by  private  business. 
Jay  wrote  five,  Hamilton  fifty-one,  Madison  twenty-six  and  their  joint 
effort  contributed  three,  by  the  most  probable  conclusions.  These 
papers  did  much  toward  securing  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution, 
and  form  one  of  the  most  important  commentaries  on  the  Constitution. 

Federalists,  Federal  Party,  the  first  political  party  which  had 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  a$£ 

control  of  the  Federal  Government.  When  the  Constitution  of  1787 
was  before  the  people  for  ratification,  those  who  favored  its  adoption 
took  the  name  of  Federalists,  giving  to  its  opponents  that  of  Anti- 
Federalists.  In  the  First  Congress,  definite  party  divisions  were  not 
found.  Before  the  second  had  ended,  there  was  a  definite  division  be- 
tween Federalists  and  those  who  called  themselves  Republicans  or  Demo- 
crats. Hamilton  was  the  leader  of  the  former,  Jefferson  of  the  latter. 
Hamilton's  financial  measures  had  been  acceptable  to  those  who  desired 
strong  government,  the  commercial  classes,  those  who  wished  to  see 
the  Union  drawn  still  more  closely  together,  still  further  in  the  direction 
of  centralization  and  national  consolidation.  Their  opponents  stigma- 
tized them  as  monarchists.  Beside  Hamilton  and  Vice-President  John 
Adams,  the  party's  chief  leaders  were  Fisher  Ames,  Cabot,  Sedgwick, 
Strong,  Pickering  and  Quincy,  of  Massachusetts  ;  Ellsworth,  Tracy, 
Griswold  and  Hillhouse,  of  Connecticut  ;  Rufus  King,  Jay  and  Gouv- 
erneur  Morris,  of  New  York  ;  Dayton,  of  New  Jersey  ;  Bayard,  of  Dela- 
ware ;  Marshall,  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  and  C.  C.  Pinckney,  of  South 
Carolina.  Washington  was  more  inclined  to  this  party  than  to  the 
other.  Its  strength  was  always  greatest  in  New  England.  When  war 
broke  out  between  England  and  France  in  1793,  the  Federalists,  con- 
servative and  averse  to  the  French  Revolution,  favored  Great  Britain. 
In  1796  they  elected  John  Adams  President,  but  failed  to  elect  Thomas 
Pinckney  Vice-President.  In  1797  they  tried  to  bring  the  country  into 
war  with  France,  but  Adams,  never  so  extreme  as  the  bulk  of  the 
party,  prevented  this  ;  the  result  was  a  schism  in  the  party.  In  1798 
the  party  passed  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  which  forever  destroyed 
their  popularity.  In  the  election  of  1800  Adams  and  Pinckney  were 
decisively  defeated  by  Jefferson  and  Burr  ;  the  causes  were,  the  acts 
mentioned,  internal  dissensions,  and  the  indifference  of  intellectual  and 
acute  leaders  to  popular  feelings.  During  the  administrations  of  Jeffer- 
son and  Madison  the  party  dwindled.  As  an  opposition  party,  it  took 
strict-constructionist  ground.  Some  of  its  leaders  engaged  in  projects 
for  a  disruption  of  the  Union.  Finally,  its  unpatriotic  course  in  the 
War  of  181 2  and  the  odium  excited  by  the  Hartford  Convention  des- 
troyed it  utterly.  Holding  the  government  during  the  critical  years 
1789-1801,  it  had  given  it  strength,  but  it  distrusted  the  people  too 
much  for  permanent  success  in  America. 

Fenceviewers,  town  officers  appointed  in  the  early  days  of  the 
New  England  colonies  to  look  after  fences.  They  had  to  take  care 
that  the  fences  were  four  feet  high,  of  reasonable  strength  and  in  a 
good  state  of  repair,  and  they  had  considerable  authority  to  carry  out 
these  orders. 


252  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Fenians,  an  organization  of  Irish-American  revolutionists,  estab- 
lished in  1861,  which  advocated  the  forcible  separation  of  Ireland  from 
England.  By  1863  they  had  a  large  following  in  this  country,  John 
O'Mahoney  being  the  moving  spirit.  Emissaries  visited  all  parts  of  the 
country.  The  British  Government  watched  them  closely  and  spoiled 
their  nearly  matured  plans  for  revolution  by  seizing,  September  15, 
1865,  their  organ,  the  Irish  People,  in  Ireland  and  arresting  a  number 
of  their  leaders,  Mby,  O'Leary  and  O'Donovan  Rossa.  O'Mahoney 
proposed  to  establish  an  independent  government  in  America,  and  a 
convention  was  held  at  New  York  in  1865  for  that  purpose,  O'Mahoney 
being  elected  president.  The  Fenians  made  several  attacks  along  the 
Canadian  frontier  in  1866,  and  rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland  in  1867. 
It  was  quickly  suppressed  and  the  Fenians  rendered  harmless. 

Ferguson,  Patrick,  died  in  1780.  He  was  a  British  soldier  who 
came  to  America  in  1777,  fought  at  Brandy  wine,  was  active  along  the 
Hudson  in  1779,  and  was  promoted  major  for  services  at  the  siege  of 
Charleston.  He  enlisted  many  loyalists  in  South  Carolina,  but  was 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain. 

Ferry,  Thomas  W.,  born  in  1827,  was  a  member  of  the  Michigan 
House  of  Representatives  in  1850,  and  Senator  in  1856,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber for  Michigan  in  the  Chicago  Republican  Convention  of  i860.  He 
was  a  Representative  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1865  to  1871,  and  a 
U.  S.  Senator  from  1871  to  1883.  He  acted  as  president  of  the  Senate 
from  1875  to  1877,  during  which  time  he  presided  over  the  impeach- 
ment trial  of  Secretary  Belknap,  and  over  the  joint  meetings  during  the 
electoral  count  of  1877.     D.  1896. 

Fessenden,  William  Pitt  (1806-1869),  was  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire. He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  soon  began  practice  in 
Portland,  Me.  He  served  in  the  Maine  House  of  Representatives  from 
1832  to  1840,  1845  to  1846,  and  1853  to  1854.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Whig  National  Conventions  of  1840,  1848  and  1852,  and  became  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress from  1841  to  1843,  and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1854  to 
1864,  when  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  President 
Lincoln,  and  served  till  1865.  He  was  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1865 
to  1869.  While  in  the  Senate  he  made  a  famous  speech  against  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  Fi- 
nance Committee,  where  he  very  ably  sustained  the  national  credit.  He 
was  one  of  the  seven  Republican  Senators  who  voted  for  the  acquittal 
of  President  Johnson  in  the  impeachment  trial  of  1867. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  253 

F.  F.  V.'S,  an  abbreviation  of  "  First  Families  of  Virginia,"  applied 
generally  to  the  Southern  aristocracy.  The  term  was  of  Northern 
origin. 

Field,  Cyrus  West  (1819-1892),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  en- 
gaged in  business  in  New  York  till  1853.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  a 
submarine  telegraph  across  the  Atlantic,  and  formed  the  New  York, 
Newfoundland  and  London  Telegraph  Company,  consisting  of  Peter 
Cooper,  Moses  Taylor,  Marshall  Roberts  and  Chandler  White.  The 
necessary  rights  for  fifty  years  were  obtained,  and  communication  was 
secured  in  1858,  but  the  cable  proved  worthless  after  a  few  weeks.  The 
Atlantic  Telegraph  Company  was  formed  and  attempts  were  made 
with  the  "  Great  Eastern  "  in  1865  and  1866,  the  last  of  which  was  com- 
pletely successful.  For  this  great  achievement  he  was  honored  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  After  this  success  he  was  active  in  improving  the 
rapid  transit  system  of  New  York. 

Field,  David  Dudley  (1805-1894),  was  prominent  in  law  reform 
movements.  From  1847  to  1850  he  was  a  commissioner  to  prepare 
"  Codes  of  Civil  and  Criminal  Procedure,"  now  in  several  instances 
adopted  ;  and  from  1857  to  1865  was  chairman  of  a  New  York  commis- 
sion to  prepare  political,  penal  and  civil  codes.  In  1873  he  published 
• '  Outlines  of  an  International  Code, ' '  which  has  attracted  wide  atten- 
tion. 

Field,  Stephen  J.,  brother  of  Cyrus  W.  and  David  D.,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1816,  practiced  law  with  his  brother,  David  Dudley,  and 
went  to  California  in  1849,  being  one  of  the  founders  of  Marysville.  In 
the  first  State  Legislature  he  served  on  the  Judiciary  Committee,  where 
he  was  active  in  improving  the  judiciary  system.  From  1857  to  1864  he 
was  Judge  of  the  California  Supreme  Court,  and  Chief  Justice  from  1859 
to  1863,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  by  Presi- 
dent Lincoln .  He  was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  Electoral  Commis- 
sion in  1877.     Retired  1898,  and  died  1899. 

Fifty-four  forty  or  fight.  Under  the  treaty  with  Spain  of  1819, 
parallel  420  was  fixed  as  the  northern  limit  of  that  country's  possessions 
in  America.  Between  420  and  540  40'  lay  the  special '  •  Oregon  country, ' ' 
claimed  by  both  England  and  the  United  States.  English  fur-traders 
had  passed  to  the  south  of  parallel  490,  below  which  surveys  had  been 
made  by  the  United  States,  and  where  settlements  were  being  slowly 
made.  In  1844  the  hot-headed  among  the  Democrats  started  the  cry, 
"Fifty-four  forty  or  fight,"  referring  to  540  40',  for  which  limit  they 
wished  to  resort  to  war.     For  a  time  war  seemed  inevitable,  but  in  1846 


254  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

a  treaty  was  concluded  fixing  the  boundary  between  the  British  and 
United  States  possessions  at  490  north  latitude. 

Filibusters,  a  name  borrowed  from  the  West  Indian  freebooters  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  and  applied  to  associations 
originating  in  the  United  States  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  freeing 
Cuba  and  other  West  Indian  islands  or  Central  American  districts  from 
European  control.  The  acquisition  of  Texas  was  a  successful  filibuster- 
ing expedition.  In  1850  I^opez,  a  Cuban,  Governor  Quitman,  of  Missis- 
sippi, and  others,  were  arrested  for  violating  the  neutrality  law  of  1818, 
by  a  proposed  filibustering  expedition  against  Cuba.  They  were  after- 
ward released.  In  1855  General  William  Walker,  with  a  California 
company,  sailed  on  a  filibustering  expedition  against  Nicaragua.  He 
took  possession  of  the  country,  was  elected  President  and  was  recognized 
by  the  American  Minister.  He  surrendered  to  the  United  States,  but 
organized  another  expedition  in  i860.  He  was  captured  and  shot  by 
the  President  of  Honduras.  This  ended  filibustering.  The  term  "  fili- 
buster ' '  as  used  in  respect  to  parliamentary  proceedings,  in  the  sense  of 
engaging  in  dilatory  tactics,  is  no  doubt  derived  from  this,  in  the  mean- 
ing of  carrying  on  irregular  warfare. 

Fillmore,  Millard  (1800-1874),  was  born  in  New  York.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S23  and  began  practice  in  Aurora,  N.  Y.  He 
was  elected  by  the  Anti-Masons  a  member  of  the  New  York  House  of 
Representatives  from  1829  to  183 1,  and  drafted  the  bill  abolishing  impris- 
onment for  debt.  He  represented  New  York  as  a  Whig  in  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  from  1833  to  1835,  and  again  from  1837  to  1843, 
when  he  served  as  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  and 
drafted  the  tariff  bill  of  1842.  From  1847  to  JS49  he  was  State  Comp- 
troller. In  1848  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  on 
the  Whig  ticket  with  Zachary  Taylor  for  President.  After  the  death  of 
Taylor  on  July  9,  1850,  he  became  President  and  served  until  March  3, 
1853.  During  his  administration  the  Compromise  Acts  of  1850  were 
passed  and  the  Japanese  expedition  of  1852  was  arranged.  In  1856  he 
was  defeated  as  the  National  American  candidate  for  President  of  the 
United  States.  He  commanded  a  corps  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
president  of  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society. 

Fire  Department.  The  first  volunteer  t*  re  company  in  America  wa9 
organized  in  Philadelphia,  1736. 

Fire-eaters,  a  name  given,  especially  in  the  fifties,  to  those  Southern 
politicians  who  were  most  extreme  in  their  advocacy  of  Southern  claim* 
and  in  their  hostility  to  the  North  and  to  anti-slavery  agitation. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  255 

Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United  States.  In  1841,  Tyler  having  just 
taken  Harrison's  place  as  President,  the  Sub-Treasury  Act  was  repealed, 
and  the  Whigs  passed  an  act  chartering  the  Fiscal  Bank  of  the  United 
States.  Tyler  vetoed  the  bill,  to  every  one's  surprise.  Another  bill, 
framed  with  Tyler's  approval,  was  then  passed,  but  its  opponents  had 
filled  the  President's  mind  with  jealousies  and  suspicions,  so  he  vetoed 
this  bill  also,  and  the  Whigs  could  not  override  the  veto. 

Fish,  Hamilton  (1808-1893),  born  in  New  York  City,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1830.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives 
from  New  York,  serving  from  1843  to  l845>  an<l  was  a  State  Senator  in 
1847.  He  was  Governor  of  New  York  from  1848  to  1850,  and  was  a  U.  S. 
Senator  from  1851  to  1857.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  in  Grant's  Cab- 
inet, serving  from  1869  to  1877.  He  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton in  1 87 1,  and  the  St.  Domingo  treaties. 

Fish  Commission,  created  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1870.  The  head 
of  this  department  is  the  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  There  is 
also  an  Assistant  Commissioner.  These  officers  collect  statistics  of  fish 
and  fisheries  of  the  whole  country,  experiment  concerning  the  best 
methods  of  capture,  and  investigate  the  food  and  habits  of  fish. 

Fisher,  Mary.  Among  the  first  Quakers  who  arrived  at  Boston, 
July,  1656,  was  Mary  Fisher,  and  her  companion,  Ann  Austin,  who 
preached  their  peculiar  doctrines  with  so  much  enthusiasm  and  success 
that  a  great  dread  and  antipathy  against  them  was  developed.  The  two 
women  were  treated  with  the  gravest  indignities,  their  property  des- 
troyed, and  their  bodies  searched  for  marks  of  witchcraft.  After  keep- 
ing the  women  in  prison  for  several  weeks,  the  authorities  drove  them 
out  of  the  colonies.  These  cruelties  only  seemed  to  make  the  Quakers 
more  resolute,  and,  despite  persecutions,  others  came  forward  to  brave  all 
opposition.  Public  alarm  finally  became  so  great  at  the  influence  of  the 
Quakers  that  the  united  Colonies  Assembly  pronounced  the  death 
penalty  against  what  were  called  fanatical  disturbers  of  the  public  peace. 
In  1659  f°ur  persons,  one  of  whom  was  a  woman,  were  condemned  and 
hanged  under  this  law. 

Fisher,  Fort,  N.  C,  twice  assaulted  by  the  Federals  during  the 
Civil  War.  The  fort  protected  the  harbor  of  Wilmington.  The  first 
attack  was  made  December  23  and  25,  1864,  by  Porter's  fleet  and  a  land 
force  of  6,500  men  under  Butler  and  Weitzel.  The  fleet  contained  500 
guns.  Butler  attempted  to  blow  up  the  fort  with  a  powder  boat,  but 
failed.  This  attempt  to  take  Fort  Fisher  failed,  so  Grant  sent  1,500 
more  men  under  Terry,  and  on  January  13  and  15,  1865,  a  combined  at- 


256  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tack  was  made  by  land  and  sea.  The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  Whiting 
with  2,300  Confederates.  Throughout  the  thirteenth  the  fleet  kept  up  a 
continuous  fire,  but  the  garrison  held  out  bravely.  On  the  fifteenth  the 
land  force  made  an  attack,  and  a  hand-to-hand  fight  of  five  hours  took 
place.  Then  the  fort  surrendered,  the  entire  garrison  being  captured. 
Next  day  the  powder  magazine  blew  up,  killing  200  men. 

Fisheries  Question.  Previous  to  the  Revolution  fishermen  of  the 
American  colonies  had  free  access  to  the  fishing  grounds  of  Labrador, 
Newfoundland  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Subsequently  to  the  war 
this  privilege  was  protested  against  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canadas. 
The  question  was  long  debated.  Finally  a  compromise  was  effected  in 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  September  3,  1783.  United  States  fishermen  were 
allowed  access  to  the  fishing  grounds  of  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland, 
Labrador,  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Magdalen  Islands,  on  an  equal 
footing  with  British  fishermen,  in  such  parts  as  were  unsettled  or  where 
permission  could  be  obtained  from  the  settlers.  The  War  of  181 2  did 
away  with  this  treaty,  the  fishery  right  was  denied  the  United  States, 
and  Canadian  Governors  were  instructed  to  exclude  our  fishermen.  A 
commission  of  the  two  countries  decided  in  1818  that  the  United  States 
should  forever  have  the  right  to  fish  on  the  western  and  northern 
coast  of  Newfoundland  and  the  Magdalens  only.  Reciprocal  trade 
being  established  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  by  the  treaty 
of  1847,  fishing  was  allowed  the  former  in  all  British  colonies  except 
Newfoundland,  which  refused  consent.  This  treaty  was  terminated  in 
1866  by  the  United  States  and  the  conditions  of  1818  were  revived.  By 
the  treaty  of  Washington,  in  1871,  the  United  States  fishermen  were  al- 
lowed to  take  fish  of  any  description,  except  shell-fish,  in  all  Canadian 
waters,  the  British  fishermen  to  have  the  same  privileges  in  United 
States  waters  north  of  latitude  390  north. 

Fishers  Hill,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  between  Sheridan's 
army  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  about  20,000  strong,  and  Early,  com- 
manding a  large  Confederate  force.  After  the  battle  of  Opequan,  when 
Karly  was  defeated,  the  latter  retreated  to  Fisher's  Hill  and  was  there 
overtaken,  October  21,  1864,  by  Sheridan.  Early  held  an  unusually 
strong  position.  The  Eighth  Corps  gained  a  wooded  approach  in  the 
Confederate  rear,  attacking  the  Confederates  thence  while  they  were 
busy  with  Sheridan's  main  command  on  their  front.  The  success  of 
this  plan  was  instantaneous.  The  Confederates  fled  in  all  directions, 
and  were  pursued  by  Sheridan  to  the  Blue  Ridge. 

Fishing  Creek,  Battle  of,  August  18, 1780.  At  this  place  General 
Sumter  had  taken  his  position  with  considerable  stores  and  100  prisoners 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  257 

captured  from  the  British.  Here  Tarleton  attacked  him  and  routed  his 
forces,  freed  the  captives,  recovered  the  booty,  and  besides  took  300 
prisoners. 

Fisk,  Clinton  B.  (1828-1890),  entered  the  Civil  War  as  colonel  and 
became  major-general.  He  was  president  of  the  Indian  Commission 
under  President  Grant,  and  was  the  Prohibitionist  candidate  for  President 
in  1888. 

Fiske,  John,  born  in  1842,  first  came  to  public  prominence  as  an 
expounder  of  the  theory  of  evolution,  making  extensive  and  valuable 
contributions.  Since  1869,  residing  in  Cambridge,  he  has  lectured  on 
American  history  throughout  the  United  States  and  in  England.  Among 
his  works  relating  to  the  history  of  the  United  States  are,  ' '  The  Critical 
Period  of  American  History,"  "The  Beginnings  of  New  England," 
11  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States, "  "  The  Discovery  and  Spanish 
Conquest  of  America,"  and  "  The  American  Revolution." 

Fitch,  John  (1 743-1 798),  was  born  in  Connecticut.  He  was  a 
watchmaker,  and  at  the  outbreak-  of  the  Revolution,  engaged  in  gun- 
making  for  the  American  forces.  He  spent  the  winter  with  the  troops 
at  Valley  Forge,  and  in  1780  was  appointed  deputy-surveyor  of  Virginia. 
In  1785  he  constructed  a  boat  propelled  by  steam  power,  and  in  1790 
one  of  his  improved  passenger  boats  plied  regularly  between  Philadel- 
phia and  Burlington.  Robert  Fulton  is  said  to  have  had  access  to  his 
drawings  and  papers,  and  it  was  proved  by  the  courts  in  181 7  that  his 
inventions  and  those  of  Fitch  were  in  substance  the  same. 

Five-Cent  Piece,  or  Half-Dime,  originally  a  silver  coin  author- 
ized in  1792,  and  coined  the  same  year  (original  weight,  20.8  grains). 
In  1853  it  was  reduced  to  19.2  grains.  In  1873  it  was  discontinued.  In 
1866  the  coinage  of  nickel  five-cent  pieces  was  authorized,  the  value  re- 
maining, as  at  first,  one-twentieth  of  the  standard  dollar.  The  legal- 
tender  value  was,  however,  reduced  from  five  dollars  to  thirty  cents. 
There  were  no  issues  of  half -dimes  during  the  years  1798,  1799,  1804, 
1806  to  1828  inclusive.  Some  silver  half-dimes  were  the  first  coins 
struck  by  the  U.  S.  Mint  in  1792. 

Five  Forks,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  which  practically  sealed 
the  fate  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg.  It  occurred  April  1,  1865, 
during  that  last  celebrated  campaign.  Here  Sheridan  cut  to  pieces 
Pickett's  Confederate  troops  after  many  hours  of  the  most  desperate 
and  sanguinary  fighting  of  the  whole  war.  The  Confederates  lost  over 
5,000  in  killed  and  prisoners.  This  victory  for  the  Federals  precipitated 
a  general  attack  upon  the  Confederate  lines  on  April  2. 
Vol.  V.— 17 


258  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Five-twenties.  Bonds  bearing  six  per  cent,  interest  payable  in 
gold,  and  redeemable  at  any  time  after  five  years  from  the  date  of  issue, 
and  payable  in  full  at  the  end  of  twenty  years,  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment in  1862,  1864  and  1865. 

Flag:.  The  Stars  and  Stripes  gradually  grew  ;  it  was  a  creature  of 
circumstance  ;  there  is  no  record  of  its  birth.  Among  the  colonies  the 
British  was,  of  course,  the  recognized  standard.  Here  and  there  wrere 
minor  modifications,  but  the  retention  of  the  "union"  with  its  two 
crosses  of  St.  Andrew  and  St.  George  marked  all  as  essentially  British. 
Even  after  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  the  union  was  retained  to 
show  that  the  war  did  not  mean  separation.  Congress  made  at  first  no 
effort  to  fix  a  national  standard.  There  were  two  classes  of  flags  in 
vogue  in  the  early  years  of  the  Revolution,  the  "  pine-tree  "  flags  of 
New  England  origin,  and  the  "  rattlesnake  "  flag,  more  national  in  its 
make-up.  The  latter  was  white  with  a  rattlesnake  cut  into  thirteen 
pieces,  each  marked  with  the  initial  of  a  colony,  and  the  legend  Join, 
or  die.  The  need  of  a  national  flag  became  evident  in  1775.  The 
stripes  were  first  used  by  a  Philadelphia  light-horse  troop,  and  Con- 
gress adopted  them  in  1775  on  the  recommendation  of  a  committee 
consisting  of  Franklin,  Lynch  and  Harrison,  still  retaining  the  British 
"  union."  This  flag  was  raised  over  the  American  headquarters  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  January  1  or  2,  1776.  After  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, Congress,  June  14,  1777,  ordered  the  "  union  "  to  be  dis- 
placed by  thirteen  stars.  This  flag  was  made  at  239  Arch  St.,  Philadel- 
phia, and  was  first  displayed  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  September  11, 
1777.  On  the  admission  of  Vermont  and  Kentucky,  1794,  two  new 
stripes  were  added,  but  by  the  Act  of  April  4,  1818,  the  number  of 
stripes  was  limited  to  thirteen,  the  number  of  stars  increasing  with  the 
number  of  the  States. 

Flatheads,  a  term  incorrectly  applied  to  the  Selish  Indians.  They 
have  always  been  friendly  to  the  whites,  and  originally  resided  on  the 
Bitter  Root  or  St.  Mary's  River.  In  a  treaty  approved  in  1859  they 
ceded  all  their  lands  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1871  were  removed  to 
a  reservation  in  northwest  Montana. 

Flogging.  Until  1850  this  was  one  of  the  punishments  inflicted  in 
the  navy.  It  was  abolished  in  that  year  in  the  navy  and  on  merchant 
vessels.  It  was  finally  prohibited  in  the  army  in  1861.  This  form  of 
punishment  is  still  administered  for  misdemeanors  in  the  State  of 
Delaware. 

Florida  was  acquired  by  the  treaty  with  Spain  of  February  22,  1819, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  359 

which  was  not  finally  ratified  by  Spain  until  1821.  It  was  first  discov- 
ered by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spaniard,  in  15 13,  on  Easter  Day,  whence  its 
name.  It  was  explored  by  Narvaez  in  1528,  and  by  De  Soto  in  1539. 
In  1564  a  settlement  was  made  near  Florida  by  French  Huguenots 
under  Laudonni&re,  but  in  the  following  year  Melendez  sailed  from 
Spain  to  exterminate  the  heretics  ;  and  having  founded  St.  Augustine, 
1565,  massacred  the  entire  French  colony.  The  Spaniards  held  Florida 
until  1763,  when  they  exchanged  it  with  England  for  Cuba.  In  1783 
England  gave  Florida  back  to  Spain  in  exchange  for  the  Bahama 
Islands.  In  1795  the  territory  west  of  the  Perdido  was  ceded  to  France, 
and  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  with  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  of  1803.  During  the  War  of  1812  the  government  of  Florida 
was  weak,  and  the  State  became  a  refuge  for  fugitive  slaves  and 
Indians.  The  Governor  of  Georgia  sent  a  force  against  them,  which  in- 
creased the  disorder.  In  1818  General  Jackson  invaded  Florida,  attacked 
the  Seminoles  and  captured  Pensacola,  which  was  restored  to  Spain. 
Ceded  by  treaty  of  1819,  in  1822  Florida  became  a  territory  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1845  it  was  admitted  as  a  State.  In  1835-44  a 
war  with  the  Seminoles  resulted  in  their  removal  to  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. From  1845  to  1852  the  State  was  controlled  by  the  Whigs,  when 
it  became  Democratic.  An  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by  a 
State  Convention,  January  10,  1S61.  It  was  restored  to  its  full  standing 
as  a  State  on  June  25,  1868.  From  this  time  until  1876  the  Republicans 
controlled  the  State.  In  that  year  the  dispute  over  the  electoral  vote 
was  decided  by  the  Electoral  Commission  at  Washington  in  favor  of 
the  Republicans.  Since  1876  the  State  has  been  Democratic.  In  1869 
Alabama  offered  $1, 000,000  for  West  Florida,  and  a  popular  vote  in 
that  part  of  the  State  voted  in  favor  of  the  annexation  to  Alabama, 
but  it  was  not  accomplished.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in 
1868.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1845  was  54,477  ;  in  1890  it  was 
391,422. 

"  Florida,"  a  Confederate  cruiser  fitted  out  in  England  in  1862,  and 
sailing  at  first  under  the  name  of  the  "Oreto."  She  proceeded  im- 
mediately to  Nassau,  in  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  was  twice  seized,  but 
eventually  escaped.  Her  name  was  then  changed  to  the  "  Florida. " 
For  two  years  she  did  great  damage  to  the  Union  cause  all  along  the 
coast  and  among  the  West  Indies.  She  was  captured  and  sunk  October 
7,  1864,  in  the  Brazilian  harbor  of  Bahia,  by  the  Union  vessel  "  Wachu- 
sett,"  Captain  Collins,  who  surprised  her  when  unprepared  for  battle. 

Floyd,  John  (1770-1837),  a  States-rights  Democrat  from  Virginia,  in 
Congress  from  181 7  to  1829,  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from  1830  to  1834, 


260  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

and  was  a  personal  friend  of  Jefferson,  Madison,  Crawford  and  Jackson. 
In  1832  South  Carolina  cast  her  electoral  votes  for  him  as  President. 

Floyd,  John  B.  (1807-1863),  was  born  in  New  York.  He  served  in 
the  Virginia  legislature  in  1847-1849  and  1853,  and  was  Governor  from 
1850  to  1853.  He  was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  by  President  Bu- 
chanan, and  served  from  1857  to  i860,  when  he  resigned.  He  was 
accused  of  conspiracy  in  aiding  the  Secessionists  while  Secretary  of 
War,  especially  in  removing  war  materials  to  Southern  arsenals.  He 
joined  the  Confederate  army  as  a  brigadier-general  and  fought  at  Fort 
Donelson  and  escaped,  but  was  soon  after  relieved  of  command  by  Mr. 
Davis. 

Folger,  Charles  J.  (1818-1884),  was  chairman  of  the  Judiciary 
Committee  of  the  New  York  Senate  from  1861  to  1869,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Grant  assistant  treasurer  in  New  York  City,  1869 
to  1870.  He  was  made  Associate  Judge  of  the  State  Court  of  Appeals 
in  1871,  Chief  Justice  in  1880,  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Arthur's 
Cabinet  from  1881  to  1884.  In  1882,  as  Republican  candidate  for  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York,  he  received  a  remarkable  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Mr.  Cleveland. 

Foote,  Andrew  H.  (1806-1863),  entered  the  navy  in  1822,  and  from 
1849  to  1852  was  active  in  suppressing  the  African  slave  trade.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  western 
flotilla.  In  1862,  in  connection  with  the  army  of  General  Grant,  he 
compelled  Fort  Henry  to  surrender  and  aided  in  a  combined  attack 
upon  Fort  Donelson.  He  succeeded  in  capturing  Island  No.  10  from  the 
Confederates,  and  in  1863  was  promoted  rear-admiral.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  noble  and  courageous  officers  of  the  U.  S.  navy. 

Foraker,  Joseph  B.,  was  born  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Army  of 
the  Cumberland  during  the  war  ;  was  Judge  of  the  Cincinnati  Superior 
Courts  from  1879  to  1882,  Republican  Governor  of  Ohio  from  1886  to 
1890,  and  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1897. 

Forbes,  John  (1710-1759),  British  soldier,  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  in  America  in  1757,  and  was  adjutant-general  in  the  expedition 
against  Louisbourg.  He  commanded  the  expedition  against  Fort 
Duquesne,  accompanied  by  Washington  with  2,000  Virginians  ;  and 
after  taking  possession  named  it  Fort  Pitt  (now  Pittsburg),  in  honor  of 
William  Pitt. 

Force  Bill.  After  the  passage  of  the  Act  of  1828,  authorizing  a 
higher  protective  tariff  system,   great    discontent  prevailed  through 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  261 

many  of  the  Southern  States.  In  1832-33  South  Carolina  claimed  that 
State  power  to  nullify  objectionable  Federal  enactments  was  an  integral 
feature  of  American  constitutional  law.  A  bill,  nullifying  the  pro- 
tective tariff  law,  prepared  according  to  John  C.  Calhoun's  theory,  was 
passed  by  the  State  Legislature.  A  bill  to  enforce  the  tariff  law  was 
therefore  at  once  introduced  into  Congress  and  became  law  March  2, 
1833.  It  was  called  the  "force  bill,"  or  the  "bloody  bill."  Com- 
promise adjusted  the  trouble. — During  the  reconstruction  period,  at  the 
first  indication  of  an  attack  on  the  reconstructed  governments,  Congress 
at  once  took  steps  to  defeat  the  attempt.  A  bill  for  the  enforcement 
of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amendments,  commonly  called  the 
*'  force  bill,"  was  passed  in  Congress  by  a  strict  party  vote  and  became 
law  May  31,  1870.  It  made  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment  all  at- 
tempts at  intimidation,  bribery  or  hindrance  in  the  matters  of  registra- 
tion and  qualifying  for  voting.  April  20,  1871,  a  much  more  stringent 
law  was  enacted  to  put  down  the  conspiracies  against  civil  rights  by  the 
Ku-Klux  Klan  and  similar  organizations. — The  name  has  recently  been 
applied  to  the  Lodge  Election  Bill.  July  2,  1890,  a  bill  "  to  amend  and 
supplement  the  election  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  to  provide  for  a 
more  efficient  enforcement  of  such  laws,"  passed  the  House,  having 
been  submitted  by  Lodge,  of  Massachusetts,  but  was  forced  out  of  the 
way  in  the  Senate  by  a  combination  of  Democratic  and  Republican 
Senators  anxious  for  the  adoption  of  free  coinage  legislation. 

Forefathers'  Day.  The  celebration  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims 
began  in  1769.  At  that  time  December  11,  old  style,  was  taken  to  be 
December  22  of  new  style,  instead  of  December  21,  as  it  should  be. 
Hence  an  error  and  confusion  regarding  the  day  was  perpetuated. 

Foreign  Affairs,  Secretary  of.  This  office  was  created  by  the 
Continental  Congress,  January  10,  1781,  upon  the  urgent  appeal  of  the 
representatives  in  foreign  countries.  Robert  R.  Livingston,  of  New 
York,  was  the  first  to  fill  the  office.  The  secretary  had  charge  of  all 
matters  concerning  foreign  governments  and  interstate  affairs  as  well. 
His  scope  was  much  restricted  at  first,  but  was  enlarged  by  reorganiza- 
tion in  1782.     Later  (1784-1789)  the  office  was  held  by  John  Jay. 

Forrest,  lydwin  (1806-1872),  born  iu  Philadelphia,  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  in  1820.  After  his  appearance  as  "  Othello," 
at  the  Park  Theater  in  New  York,  in  1826,  his  success  was  almost  unin- 
terrupted. He  was  most  successful  in  melodramatic  plays,  and  was 
exceedingly  popular  as  Othello,  Richard  III.,  Coriolanus,  Lear,  Spar- 
tacus  and  Damon.  At  Philadelphia  he  collected  the  largest  dramatic 
library  in  the  United  States. 


262  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Forrest,  Nathan  B.  (1821-1877),  born  in  Tennessee,  enlisted  in 
the  Confederate  service,  and  commanded  a  regiment  of  cavalry  at  Fort 
Donelson.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and  made  a  successful 
attack  upon  Murfreesboro.  He  served  at  Chickamauga  in  1863,  captured 
Fort  Pillow  in  1864,  and  surrendered  to  General  Wilson  at  Gainesville, 
in  1865. 

Forsyth,  John  (1780-1841),  born  in  Virginia,  was  made  Attorney- 
General  of  Georgia  in  1808.  He  was  a  Democratic  Congressman  from 
1813  to  1818  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1818  to  1819,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  to  Spain,  serving  till  1823  and  securing  the  cession  of 
Florida  to  the  United  States.  He  was  again  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from 
1823  to  1827,  when  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia.  From  1829  to 
1834  he  was  a  U.  S.  Senator,  and  from  1834  to  1841  was  Secretary  of 
State  in  the  Cabinets  of  Jackson  and  Van  Buren. 

Fortune  Bay.  Under  the  fisheries  treaty  of  1871  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  our  fishermen  were  granted  a  partici- 
pation in  the  Newfoundland  fishing  grounds.  In  January,  1878,  in 
violation  of  these  provisions,  several  Gloucester  vessels  were  attacked 
by  the  natives  at  Fortune  Bay,  and  driven  away.  Great  Britain  awarded 
damages  of  ,£"15,000. 

Forward,  Walter  (1 786-1852),  was  a  Congressman  from  Pennsyl- 
vania from  1822  to  1825,  and  was  active  in  the  State  Constitutional 
Convention  in  1837.  He  was  appointed  First  Comptroller  of  the 
Treasury  in  1841,  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Tyler's  Cabinet 
from  1841  to  1843,  and  charge*  d'affaires  to  Denmark  from  1849  to 
185 1. 

Foster,  Sir  Augustus  J.  (1780-1848),  was  appointed  British  Min- 
ister Plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States  in  181 1.  His  manners  were 
not  conciliatory,  and  the  difficulties  which  led  to  the  War  of  181 2  were 
not  settled.     He  returned  in  181 2. 

Foster,  Charles,  born  in  Ohio  in  1828,  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1870  to  1876,  and  served  on  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means. 
He  was  Governor  of  Ohio  from  1879  to  1884.  From  1891  to  1893  he  was 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Harrison's  Cabinet. 

Foster,  John  W.,  born  in  Indiana  in  1836,  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
commanding  in  East  Tennessee,  and  was  Minister  to  Mexico  from  1873 
to  1880,  to  Russia  from  1880  to  1881,  and  to  Spain  from  1883  to  1885. 
From  1892  to  1893  he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Cabinet  of  President 
Harrison. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  263 

Fox,  George  (1624-1691),  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  came 
to  America  and  visited  the  colonies  of  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New  York 
and  Rhode  Island  (1671-73). 

Fox,  Gustavus  V.  (1821-1883),  enlisted  in  the  navy  in  1838,  and 
served  most  efficiently  as  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1861  to 
1865,  when  he  was  sent  to  Russia  on  a  special  commission  and  secured 
Alaska  for  the  United  States. 

Foxes,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians  and  kinsmen  of  the  Sacs.  They 
were  early  driven  from  place  to  place,  and  finally  settled  on  the  Wis- 
consin. In  the  Revolution  they  joined  the  British  under  De  Langlade. 
They  made  a  treaty  in  1804  and  ceded  lands,  but  with  the  English  attacked 
Sandusky  in  the  War  of  1812.  In  1824  and  1830  they  ceded  large  tracts 
of  land.  Though  involved  in  the  Black  Hawk  War  they  gave  up  more 
of  their  territory  in  a  treaty  with  General  Scott  at  its  close.  Later  they 
centered  on  the  Des  Moines,  and  in  1842  were  removed,  settling  on  the 
Osage. 

France.  The  first  treaty  which  the  independent  States  of  North 
America  made  was  with  France,  February  6,  1778.  An  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance  was  thus  effected  between  the  two  countries  against 
Great  Britain,  and  the  "  essential  and  direct  end  "  was  to  maintain  the 
sovereignty  and  independence  of  the  United  States.  The  United  States, 
as  an  equivalent,  guaranteed  to  the  crown  of  France  all  its  then  posses- 
sions in  the  West  India  Islands  ;  exclusive  mutual  privileges  were 
granted  as  to  ships  of  war  and  privateers  bringing  prizes  into  port. 
France  powerfully  aided  in  securing  American  independence  by  troops 
under  Rochambeau  and  fleets  under  D'Estaing  and  De  Grasse.  The  at- 
tempts of  the  United  States  to  escape  the  responsibilities  of  its  guaran- 
tees gave  rise  to  strained  relations  during  the  French  Revolution,  but 
the  treaty  of  1800  (to  remain  in  force  eight  years)  restored  good  feeling 
between  the  two  countries,  and  in  the  amendments  on  each  side  the  old 
treaties  entirely  disappeared.  On  April  30,  1803,  France  ceded  to  the 
United  States  the  province  of  Louisiana,  as  it  had  been  retroceded 
from  Spain  to  France  in-i8oo,  for  the  payment  of  60,000,000  francs,  in- 
dependent of  the  assumption  of  spoliation  claims  against  France,  which 
amounted  to  20,000,000  francs  more.  In  1831  a  mutual  settlement  of  all 
claims  was  agreed  upon  between  the  two  countries,  the  United  States 
agreeing  to  pay  1,500,000  francs,  and  France  25,000,000.  Difficulties 
arising  from  this  treaty  postponed  the  fulfillment  of  its  provisions,  and 
it  was  not  until  1836  that  the  whole  matter  was  settled.  Conventions 
for  the  extradition  of  criminals  were  concluded  in  1843,  1845,  1858  and 
1893.     A  consular  convention  was  concluded  in  1853.     French  difficul- 


264  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ties  in  Mexico,  the  Civil  War  of  the  United  States  and  the  war  of  1870-71 
between  France  and  Germany  give  rise  to  claims  on  the  part  of  citizens 
of  each  country  against  the  other.  Accordingly  the  convention  of  1880 
was  concluded  by  which  commissioners  were  appointed  for  the  settle- 
ment of  these  claims.  The  commissioners  finally  allowed  claims  of 
$2,636.21  against  France  and  claims  of  $625,566.35  against  the  United 
States.  A  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  March  15,  1892.  (See  also 
French  Revolution  and  Directory.) 

Francis,  David  Rowland,  born  near  Richmond,  Ky.,  October  1, 
1850,  graduated  at  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  1870.  A  suc- 
cessful commission  merchant,  he  embarked  in  politics  and  was  elected 
mayor  of  St.  Louis,  1885-9,  an(l  was  Governor  of  Missouri  1889-93. 
He  served  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  (1896-7)  as  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
and  affiliated  with  the  Gold  Democrats.  At  this  time  (1900)  he  is  chair- 
man of  the  committee  of  the  St.  Louis  World's  Fair  to  be  held  in 
1903  to  celebrate 'the  centenary  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  He  is  a 
man  of  great  wealth  and  public  enterprise. 

Frankfort,  Ky.,  was  laid  out  in  1787,  and  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  State  in  1792.  It  was  held  by  the  Southern  forces  for  a  month  in 
1862. 

Frankfort  I/and  Company,  a  company  formed  in  1686  of  wealthy 
and  distinguished  persons  of  Germany  and  Holland.  The  members 
were  chiefly  Pietists,  and  they  had  intended  coming  to  Pennsylvania 
themselves,  but  gave  up  the  idea,  so  the  colonists  were  led  by  Francis 
Daniel  Pastorius,  a  lawyer  and  scholar.  They  came  out  in  1683,  and 
began  the  foundation  of  Germantown,  Pa.,  the  same  year.  Later  the 
company  was  organized  and  25,000  acres  were  purchased  from  William 
Penn. 

Franking  Privilege,  a  privilege  formerly  enjoyed  by  the  President, 
Vice-President,  and  Cabinet  officers,  the  members  of  Congress,  the  del- 
egates from  the  Territories  and  a  few  others,  of  sending  mail  matter 
free.  To  each  of  the  first  four  Presidents  this  privilege  was  voted  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  and  it  has  also  been  voted  to  the  widows  of  ex- 
Presidents.  The  privilege  as  regards  individuals  was  abolished  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1873,  but  there  is  still  a  provision  permitting  packages  and  busi- 
ness letters  to  be  sent  free  from  the  departments. 

Frankland,  Sir  Charles  Henry  (1716-1768),  collector  of  the  port 
of  Boston  from  1741  to  1757,  is  noted  on  account  of  his  romantic  con- 
nection with  Agnes  Surriage,  a  maid  at  a  Massachusetts  tavern,  who 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  265 

afterward  became  Lady  Frankland.     He  was  a  man  of  great  wealth,  and 
lived  in  a  state  of  luxury  unusual  in  colonial  times. 

Frankland,  or  Franklin,  the  name  given  to  a  State  assumed  to  be 
organized  by  the  inhabitants  of  what  is  now  Tennessee,  in  1784,  in 
revolt  from  the  control  of  North  Carolina.  A  Constitution  was  framed 
and  ratified  by  popular  vote,  a  legislature  and  a  governor,  John  Sevier, 
were  elected,  and  civil  war  with  the  older  parts  of  North  Carolina 
seemed  imminent.  But  the  party  favorable  to  the  old  government  sup- 
pressed the  State  government  of  Frankland  in  1788,  and  the  cession  of 
the  lands  to  the  United  States  in  1790,  quieted  the  disturbance. 

Franklin,  Benjamin  (January  17,  1706— April  17,  1790),  one  of  the 
most  eminent  American  statesmen,  philosophers  and  writers,  was  born 
in  Boston,  the  son  of  a  tallow-chandler  and  soap-boiler.  He  was  ap- 
prenticed to  his  elder  brother,  a  printer,  and  developed  an  eager  fond- 
ness for  books  and  writing.  At  seventeen  he  ran  away  to  Philadelphia, 
where,  in  1729,  he  established  a  newspaper.  His  public  spirit,  his  tal- 
ents as  a  writer  and  the  fame  of  his  scientific  discoveries  advanced  him 
in  prominence.  In  1753  he  was  appointed  deputy  postmaster-general 
of  the  British  colonies.  In  1754,  being  a  member  of  the  Albany  Con- 
vention, he  proposed  an  important  plan  for  colonial  union.  From  1757 
to  1762,  and  again  from  1764  to  the  Revolution,  he  was  agent  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  England  ;  part  of  the  time,  also,  for  Massachusetts,  New 
Jersey  and  Georgia.  In  1773,  acting  as  agent  for  the  political  leaders 
in  Massachusetts,  he  sent  over  to  them  the  correspondence  of  Hutchin- 
son, Oliver  and  other  Massachusetts  loyalists  with  a  confidant  of  the 
British  Ministry.  The  publication  of  the  letters  aroused  great  excite- 
ment in  the  colonies,  and  brought  down  upon  Franklin  violent  abuse 
on  the  part  of  the  ministerialists,  and  dismissal  from  his  office  of  post- 
master-general. In  1775,  seeing  that  reconciliation  was  impossible,  he 
returned  to  Pennsylvania,  and  was  at  once  chosen  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress.  In  1776  he  was  one  of  the  committee  of  five 
who  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  in  the  autumn  was 
sent  to  join  Arthur  Lee  and  Silas  Deane  in  the  mission  to  France.  In 
Paris  he  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  He  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing from  the  French  Government,  not  only  the  treaty  of  1778,  but  also 
large  sums  of  money  supplied  in  secret  before  that  government  declared 
war  on  England  and  openly  afterward.  Franklin  had  a  leading  part  in 
the  beginnings  of  negotiation  with  Great  Britain  for  peace  and  inde- 
pendence. In  respect  to  the  actual  manner  in  which  the  treaty  was 
concluded,  he  was  overruled  by  Adams  and  Jay,  who  deemed  it  best, 
contrary  to  the  instructions  of  Congress,  to  negotiate  apart  from  France 


266  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

and  make  separate  terms.  Franklin  played  an  important  part  in  the 
arrangements  of  the  treaty,  especially  those  respecting  the  loyalists. 
After  the  treaty  of  Versailles  had  thus  been  signed  (September  3, 1783), 
Franklin  negotiated  a  favorable  treaty  with  Prussia.  In  1785  Franklin 
returned  to  America,  and  was  chosen  president  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
again  in  1786  and  1787.  He  was  an  influential  member  of  the  Conven- 
tion of  1787,  and  died  at  Philadelphia  a  few  years  later.  Beside  his 
eminence  as  a  statesman  and  as  a  philosopher  and  scientific  discoverer, 
Franklin  was  noted  as  a  shrewd  and  practical  philanthropist,  and  was 
one  of  the  best  of  English  writers.  Writings  edited  by  Sparks  (1850) 
and  by  Ford  (1887);  autobiography  ;  lives  by  Parton  and  Hale. 

Franklin,  William  (1729-1813),  last  royal  Governor  of  New  Jersey, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  During  a  residence  in 
Great  Britain  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  held  the 
office  from  1762  to  1776.  In  that  year  he  was  arrested  as  a  Tory  by  the 
provincial  Congress  of  New  Jersey.  In  1778  he  was  exchanged,  lived  in 
New  York  till  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  then  retired  to 
England,  where  he  died. 

Franklin,  William  B.,  general,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1823,  was 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843,  an(I  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  War,  during  which  he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  General 
Taylor.  From  this  time  to  1861  he  was  engaged  in  engineering  work 
for  the  government.  He  entered  the  Civil  War  as  a  colonel  of  the 
regular  army,  and  took  part  in  most  of  the  battles  of  the  Peninsular 
campaign,  commanding  the  Sixth  Army  Corps  throughout  the  year 
1862.  At  Fredericksburg  he  commanded  the  left  wing,  and  was  re- 
moved by  General  Burnside  after  the  battle.  The  order  of  removal  was 
not  approved  by  President  Lincoln,  and  Burnside  resigned  his  com- 
mand. In  1863-64  Franklin  commanded  the  Nineteenth  Corps  and 
took  part  in  the  Red  River  expedition. 

Franklin,  Tenn.,  scene  of  an  important  battle  of  the  Civil  War, 
November  30,  1864.  General  Hood,  Confederate,  attempted  to  draw 
Sherman  back  from  his  march  through  Georgia  by  moving  northward 
into  Tennessee  and  attacking  Thomas.  At  Franklin  Hood  brought  to 
a  stand  a  portion  of  Thomas'  army  under  Schofield,  and,  after  several 
desperate  attacks,  compelled  him  to  withdraw.  But  the  Confederate 
loss  was  6,252,  while  that  of  Schofield  was  1,326.  Soon  followed  Thomas' 
great  victory  over  Hood  at  Nashville. 

Fraser,  Simon  (1729-1777),  British  brigadier-general,  who  in  1776 
had  command  at  Three  Rivers,  had  command  of  Burgoyne's  right  wing 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  267 

in  his  advance  upon  New  York.  He  won  the  victory  of  Hubbardton 
on  July  7,  1777,  but  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Saratogo, 
October  7. 

Frayser's  (or  Fraser's)  Farm,  Va.,  also  called  Glendale,  an  action 
in  the  Seven  Days'  fighting  in  the  Peninsular  campaign.  On  the  fifth 
day,  June  30,  1862,  McClellan  was  retreating  to  the  James,  pursued  by 
Jackson.  Ivongstreet  and  A.  P.  Hill  attacked  him  at  Frayser's  Farm, 
intending  to  pierce  his  line.  The  Confederates  attacked  McCall's  divis- 
ion with  reckless  impetuosity,  but  failed  to  break  the  line.  They  lost 
7,000  men  killed,  wounded  and  missing,  the  Federals  4,000. 

Frederic  II.  (1712-1786),  King  of  Prussia  from  1740  to  1786,  in 
1783  instructed  his  ambassador  in  Paris  to  make  friendly  overtures  to 
the  Ministers  of  the  United  States  there.  Offers  of  a  treaty  of  commerce 
and  navigation  were  made  in  1784,  and  in  1785  such  a  treaty  was  signed. 
Frederic  sent  General  Washington  a  sword,  "  from  the  oldest  general 
in  the  world  to  the  greatest. ' ' 

Fredericksburg,  Va.,  scene  of  one  of  the  most  important  battles 
of  the  Civil  War,  December  13,  1862.  Burnside  had  been  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  on  November  7.  He  resolved 
to  make  a  direct  march  on  Richmond,  and  moved  his  troops  to  the 
heights  opposite  Fredericksburg,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Rappahan- 
nock. His  force  numbered  about  125,000.  The  right  was  commanded 
by  Sumner,  the  center  by  Hooker,  the  left  wing  by  Franklin.  The 
army  of  Lee,  80,000  in  number,  was  strongly  intrenched  on  the  heights 
behind  Fredericksburg,  the  right  being  commanded  by  Jackson,  the 
left  by  Longstreet.  A  road  connected  these  wings.  A  stone  wall  ran 
along  the  foot  of  the  heights  between  the  left  wing  and  the  town.  The 
Federal  forces  crossed  the  river  by  three  pontoon  bridges  during  the 
two  days  preceding  the  battle.  Burnside's  plan  was  that  Franklin 
should  make  the  chief  attack  and  seize  the  road,  and  that  Sumner  and 
Hooker  should  then  carry  the  stone  wall  and  the  heights  behind  it. 
Franklin  did  not  employ  enough  troops  to  effect  the  object  assigned 
him.  Sumner's  troops  attacked  the  fortifications  on  Marye's  Heights 
with  great  bravery  and  persistency,  but  were  finally  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter  at  the  stone  wall.  The  assault  made  by  Hooker's  forces  at 
another  portion  of  the  wall  was  also  repulsed  with  terrible  slaughter, 
lacking  support  from  Franklin.  The  Federal  loss  in  the  battle  was 
I2i653,  the  Confederate  5»XI5-  Two  days  later  Burnside  withdrew  from 
Fredericksburg.  On  the  thirtieth  he  and  Franklin  were  relieved  of 
their  commands. 


268  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Free  Banking  System.  In  1838  the  New  York  State  Government 
established  a  "  free  banking  "  system,  which  set  the  fashion  of  reform 
elsewhere  and  was  followed  as  a  basis  of  the  national  banking  system 
of  1863.  Under  this  system  the  practice  of  granting  special  charters 
was  abandoned.  Any  persons  could  form  a  bank  who  should  deposit 
securities  with  the  State  to  the  full  amount  of  its  circulating  notes. 
Many  of  the  other  States  quickly  followed  New  York's  example,  for  the 
unregulated  banking  methods  were  beginning  to  affect  seriously  the 
State  finances. 

Free  Masons.  An  attempt  to  introduce  freemasonry  into  the  colonies 

was  made  in  1730  by  the  appointment  of  a  provincial  grand  master  of 
New  Jersey,  but  so  far  as  is  known  the  first  lodge  was  established  in 
1733  at  Boston.  Others  speedily  followed.  After  the  securing  of  in- 
dependence the  lodges  established  grand  lodges  in  the  separate  States. 

Free  Negroes.  According  to  the  census  of  1790,  there  were  59,481 
free  colored  persons  in  the  United  States.  Of  these  28,558  were  in  the 
Southern  States,  as  against  about  647,000  slaves,  17,852  in  the  Middle 
States,  as  against  about  45,000  slaves,  and  13,071  in  New  England,  as 
against  about  3,800  slaves.  As  aversion  to  slavery  decreased  in  the 
South,  emancipation  was  made  less  easy,  and  free  negroes  were  put  un- 
der certain  disabilities.  The  view  that  they  were  a  dangerous  element 
in  the  population  strengthened  the  movement  for  colonization  of  them 
in  Africa.  In  1857  the  Supreme  Court  by  what  is  known  as  the  Dred 
Scott  decision  declared  that  free  negroes  were  not  citizens  of  the  United 
States.     The  Thirteenth  Amendment  made  all  negroes  free. 

"  Free  Snips,  Free  Goods."  A  popular  summary  of  the  doctrine 
that,  in  time  of  war,  all  goods,  whether  belonging  to  neutrals  or  to  mem- 
bers of  the  belligerent  States,  are,  if  carried  in  neutral  vessels,  thereby 
exempted  from  capture,  unless  they  are  by  nature  contraband  of  war. 
This  doctrine  was  generally  held  by  neutrals.  It  was  maintained  by  the 
United  States  during  the  wars  between  England  and  France,  1793-1815. 
England,  on  the  other  hand,  had  always  maintained  that  the  determin- 
ing characteristic  was  the  ownership  of  the  property,  whatever  the 
ownership  of  the  vessel.  This  was  one  of  the  differences  from  which 
arose  the  War  of  181 2.  The  Treaty  of  Ghent  did  not  settle  the  question. 
By  the  Declaration  of  Paris  (1856)  it  was  agreed  by  the  signatory  pow 
ers  that  free  ships  should  make  free  goods,  and  indeed  that  both  enemy's 
goods  in  neutral  ships  and  neutral  goods  in  enemy's  ships  should  be 
exempt  from  capture.  While  the  United  States  did  not  accede  to  the 
Declaration  as  a  whole,  they  naturally  welcomed  this  part  of  it. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  269 

Free-Soil  Party,  a  short-lived  party  of  anti-slavery  men,  which 
sprang  into  existence  in  1848.  Immediately  after  Taylor's  nomination 
a  plan  was  laid  for  a  great  anti-slavery  meeting  at  Buffalo  in  August. 
Thousands  attended  the  meeting,  chiefly  of  two  elements  ;  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Iyiberty  party,  though  in  October,  1847,  they  had  nominated 
John  P.  Hale  as  candidate  for  President  ;  and  the  "  Barnburners,"  or 
dissatisfied  anti-administration  Democrats  of  New  York,  followers  of 
Van  Buren,  desirous  of  avenging  him  for  the  nomination  of  Polk  in 
1844.  These  last  had  in  June  nominated  Van  Buren  by  convention  held 
at  Utica.  The  Buffalo  Convention,  composed  of  these  two  partly  incon- 
gruous elements,  nominated  Van  Buren  and  C.  F.  Adams.  Its  resolu- 
tions declared  that  Congress  had  no  more  power  to  make  a  slave  than 
to  make  a  king,  and  ought  to  keep  slavery  out  of  the  Territories.  The 
"  Free-Soilers  "  polled  291,263  votes  in  1848.  They  were  strongest  in 
New  York,  Massachusetts  and  Ohio.  They  also  won  fourteen  Congress- 
men, and  in  the  next  House  had  seventeen.  In  1852  the  Van  Buren 
faction  was  reunited  with  the  regular  Democracy.  The  Free-Soilers 
met  in  convention  at  Pittsburg  in  August,  and  nominated  John  P. 
Hale  and  George  W.  Julian,  but  polled  only  155,825  votes.  The  Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Bill  called  into  existence  the  Republican  party,  and  the 
Free-Soil  party  was  absorbed  in  it. 

Freedmen's  Bureau,  a  Bureau  of  the  War  Department  of  the 
United  States  Government,  established  by  Act  of  March  3,  1865,  to  have 
general  charge  of  the  interests  of  the  enfranchised  negroes  of  the  South- 
ern States.  Its  title  was  ' '  bureau  of  refugees,  freedmen  and  abandoned 
lands,"  and  it  was  authorized  to  assign  to  the  freedmen  allotments  of 
confiscated  or  abandoned  lands  given  over  to  it  by  the  President  for  such 
purposes.  It  was  to  continue  one  year.  A  bill  continuing  it  for  two 
years  more  was  vetoed  by  President  Johnson  in  1866,  but  was  passed 
over  the  veto.  Its  general  work  continued  till  1869,  its  educational  work 
till  1870.     It  expended  in  its  work  over  $15,000,000. 

Freeman's  Farm,  N.  Y.,  an  indecisive  battle,  September  19,  1777, 
between  the  British  army,  under  Burgoyne,  and  Gates,  commanding  the 
Continental  troops.  The  latter  was  worsted  at  first,  but  Benedict  Arnold 
attacked  Burgoyne's  center  and  saved  the  Americans. 

Freewill  Baptists.  This  denomination  originated  in  1780,  in  a 
church  founded  at  New  Durham,  N.  H.,  by  Benjamin  Randall,  and 
professing  the  doctrines  of  free  salvation  and  open  communion.  Their 
general  conference  originated  in  1827.  In  1890  they  numbered  1,586 
churches  and  about  88,000  members. 


270  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Frelinghuysen,  Frederick  T.  (1817-1885),  nephew  of  Theodore, 
was  Senator  from  New  Jersey  from  1866  to  1869,  and  from  1871  to  1877, 
and  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission  of  1877.  From  1881  to  1885 
he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  General  Arthur's  Cabinet. 

Frelinghuysen,  Theodore  (1787-1861),  Senator  from  New  Jersey 
from  1829  to  1835,  was  nominated  for  Vice-President  by  the  Whigs  in 
1844  on  the  ticket  with  Clay,  but  defeated.  From  1839  to  1850  he  was 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  New  York,  and  from  1850  to  his  death 
president  of  Rutgers  College. 

Fremont,  John  Charles  (1813-1890),  was  born  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  and 
educated  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  After  a  brief  service  in  the  navy  he 
joined  the  U.  S.  corps  of  topographical  engineers,  and  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Senator  Benton.  In  1842  he  explored  a  portion  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  1843  and  1844,  with  remarkable  skill  and  energy,  he 
conducted  an  exploration  of  the  regions  of  Utah,  the  basin  of  the  Co- 
lumbia, and  the  passes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  1846,  while  in  conduct 
of  another  exploration  in  California,  he  assisted  iii  the  Bear  Flag  War, 
alleging  instructions  from  Washington,  co-operated  with  Commodore 
Stockton  in  the  conquest  of  California,  but  was  court-martialed  for  dis- 
obedience to  General  Kearny.  In  1848  he  explored,  amid  great  hard- 
ships, the  paths  from  Sante  Fe*  to  Sacramento,  and  made  a  similar  ex- 
pedition in  1853  an(*  I854-  These  explorations  made  him  famous  as  the 
"  Pathfinder,"  and  in  1856  the  new  Republican  party  made  him  its  can- 
didate for  the  Presidency,  but  was  defeated.  In  1861  he  commanded  in 
Missouri,  but,  prematurely  ordering  emancipation,  was  removed.  In 
1862  he  commanded  against  Jackson  in  the  Valley.  In  1864  he  was 
nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  a  convention  of  radical  Republicans 
dissatisfied  with  Mr.  Lincoln,  but  finally  withdrew. 

French  and  Indian  War  (1754-1763),  the  American  phase  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  and  the  culminating  portion  of  the  struggle  between 
France  and  England  for  the  possession  of  North  America.  In  1754 
France  claimed  the  whole  region  west  of  the  Alleghanies  as  a  part  of 
the  basins  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi.  England  laid  claim 
to  all  the  country  west  of  its  Atlantic  settlements.  The  French  colonists 
numbered  only  about  80,000  whites,  the  English  more  than  1,100,000. 
But  the  latter  were  divided  under  thirteen  discordant  governments  and 
were  industrial,  while  the  French  rule  was  unified  and  military,  and 
had  help  from  the  Indians.  The  war  began  with  a  struggle  for  Pitts- 
burg (Fort  Duquesne),  Washington  attacking  the  French  at  Great 
Meadows  and  being  forced  to  surrender  at  Fort  Necessity  (1754).  In 
1755  the  English  planned  four  attacks  :  Braddock's  expedition  against 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  271 

Fort  Duqucsne,  and  others  by  way  of  Lake  Chainplain,  by  way  of 
Oswego  and  Niagara,  and  against  the  French  posts  near  Nova  Scotia. 
The  first  was  disastrous,  the  second  and  third  accomplished  nothing 
substantial,  but  the  fourth  was  successful.  From  1756  on,  the  French 
and  Indians  being  under  the  command  of  the  able  Marquis  of  Montcalm, 
the  English  made  no  progress  until  the  advent  of  William  Pitt  to  the 
head  of  the  ministry  in  England  in  1757.  He  formed  a  general  scheme 
of  conquest  in  America.  In  1758  Amherst  and  Wolfe  took  Louisbourg, 
Bradstreet  captured  Fort  Frontenac  and  Forbes  took  Fort  Duquesne. 
Encouraged  by  these  successes,  Pitt  undertook  the  conquest  of  Canada. 
In  1759  Amherst  took  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  while  Prideaux 
took  Niagara.  But  the  chief  operation  of  the  year  was  a  direct  attack 
upon  Quebec,  intrusted  to  General  Wolfe,  who  captured  that  town, 
considered  impregnable,  by  means  of  the  battle  upon  the.  Plains  of 
Abraham.  The  French  were  unable  to  retake  Quebec.  Montreal  was 
taken  in  1760,  and  the  conquest  of  Canada  was  completed.  The  French 
empire  in  North  America  came  to  an  end.  By  the  peace  of  Paris  (1763) 
France  resigned  to  England  all  her  possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  to  Spain  New  Orleans  and  all  her  possessions  west  of  that  river.  To 
the  colonists  the  war  was  important  as  relieving  them  from  the  pressure 
of  hostile  neighbors,  as  giving  them  military  experience  and  as  enforc- 
ing the  necessity  of  union. 

French  Creek  (near  Clayton,  N.  Y.).  General  Brown,  here  in- 
trenched with  his  division,  was  attacked  November  1,  1813,  by  a  small 
British  fleet.  A  battery,  skillfully  handled,  drove  them  back  in  two 
engagements.     The  British  loss  was  severe,  the  American  slight. 

French  Revolution.  The  French  Revolution  began  with  the 
meeting  of  the  States  General  in  May,  1789,  and  continued  through  the 
period  of  the  National  Assembly  and  Legislative  Assembly  and  Con- 
vention to  1795,  or,  if  the  Directory  be  included,  to  1799.  It  not  only 
started  [movements  of  enormous  and  permanent  effect  in  Europe,  but 
exerted  a  great  influence  in  America.  At  first  Americans  were  favor- 
able to  it,  as  to  a  natural  consequence  of  the  American  Revolution  and 
a  movement  in  favor  of  human  liberty  and  progress.  But  the  execution 
of  the  king  in  January,  1793,  and  the  ensuing  Reign  of  Terror  increased 
the  conservative  feeling  against  it.  It  was  one  of  the  main  matters 
upon  which  our  first  parties  were  divided,  the  Federalists  opposing  it, 
the  Republicans  favoring  it ;  with  the  result  that  the  former  seemed  to 
be  especially  the  friends  of  England,  the  latter  of  France,  attacking 
Washington's  administration  with  great  vigor  on  account  of  his 
neutrality. 


*72  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

French  Spoliation  Claims.  During  the  difficulties  with  France 
in  1798,  which  nearly  amounted  to  a  state  of  war,  French  war-vessels 
and  privateers  committed  many  depredations  upon  American  commerce, 
and  many  similar  acts  had  been  committed  before,  in  the  course  of  the 
war  between  France  and  Great  Britain.  The  American  negotiators  in 
1798,  1799  and  1800  attempted  to  obtain  redress  for  these.  But  in  the 
convention  finally  negotiated  with  the  First  Consul  Bonaparte  in  1800, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  drop  the  claim.  The  claims  were  then  made 
against  the  U.  S.  Government  by  its  injured  citizens.  Bills  for  their 
relief  were  vetoed  by  Polk  in  1846  and  Pierce  in  1855.  In  1885  they 
were  referred  to  the  Court  of  Claims,  before  which  several  thousand 
such  cases  are  still  pending. 

Frenchtown,  now  Monroe,  in  Southeast  Michigan,  scene  of  a 
battle  in  the  War  of  1812,  on  January  22,  1813.  The  British  were 
driven  out  of  the  town  on  the  twentieth  by  Winchester,  commanding 
the  advance  of  Harrison's  forces  intended  for  the  reduction  of  Detroit. 
On  the  twenty-second  the  British,  under  Colonel  Proctor,  fell  upon 
Winchester,  and  compelled  him  to  surrender.  Many  of  the  prisoners 
were  massacred  by  the  Indian  allies  of  the  British.  Hence  the  affair  is 
sometimes  called  the  Massacre  of  the  River  Raisin. 

Friends,  or  Quakers.  In  1656  Quakers  began  to  come  to  Massa- 
chusetts, where  they  were  imprisoned,  banished  and,  in  four  cases  in 
which  they  returned,  hanged.  Charles  II.  put  a  stop  to  the  persecu- 
tion. George  Fox,  their  founder,  visited  America  in  1671-73.  Friends 
settled  largely  in  Rhode  Island,  and  especially  in  Pennsylvania,  which, 
founded  by  a  Quaker  (Penn),  was  largely  a  Quaker  colony.  New 
Jersey  also  was  largely  settled  by  Quakers.  Everywhere  they  were 
thrifty  and  excellent  citizens,  though  their  aversion  to  war  hampered 
Pennsylvania  in  making  successful  defense  against  the  French.  They 
were  constantly  forward  in  movements  of  philanthropy  and  reform,  and 
had  a  most  important  part  in  the  abolition  movement.  In  1827  occurred 
a  rupture  betweeu  the  '  •  Orthodox  ' '  Friends  and  the  Hicksites,  or  fol- 
lowers of  Blias  Hicks,  the  dispute  being  with  regard  to  the  atonement. 
In  1890  the  Friends  numbered  107,000. 

Fries,  John  (?  1764-?  1825),  leader  of  a  small  insurrection  against  the 
U.  S.  Government  in  Northampton,  Bucks  and  Montgomery  Counties, 
Pa.,  in  the  spring  of  1799,  raised  several  hundred  men  in  opposition  to 
the  direct  tax  on  houses  ("window  tax  "),  and  at  Bethlehem  resisted  a 
U.  S.  Marshal.  Convicted  of  treason  in  1799  and  again  upon  a  new 
trial  in  1800,  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  but  was  pardoned  by  President 
Adams. 

Frye,  Win.  P.,  see  appendix,  page  483. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  273 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin  (?I535~I594),  an  English  navigator,  in  1576 
sailed  to  find  the  northwest  passage,  and  discovered  Frobisher's  Strait. 
Later  he  made  other  voyages  toward  the  northwest  and  took  part  in  the 
destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 

Front  Royal,  Va.,  an  action  in  Jackson's  Valley  campaign,  May 
23,  1862.  Banks  lay  at  Strasburg,  with  a  large  detachment  at  Front 
Royal  under  Colonel  Kenly.  After  forced  marches  Jackson  surprised 
and  routed  Kenly. 

Frontenac,  I,ouis  de  Buade,  Count  (1620-1698),  Governor  of 
New  France,  a  man  of  high  military  reputation,  was  appointed  to  that 
post  in  1672.  Being  a  man  of  violent  passions  and  great  self-will,  he 
quarreled  with  the  intendant  Duchesneau,  the  priests  and  the  Jesuits, 
and  was  recalled  in  1682.  But  in  1689,  the  colony  having  fallen  into 
grave  difficulties,  he  was  reappointed.  He  organized  the  war  against 
the  English  with  great  spirit  and  skill,  and  sent  out  in  1690  the  expedi- 
tions which  destroyed  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Salmon  Falls,  N.  H.,  and 
Casco,  Maine.  In  the  same  year  he  repulsed  the  attack  of  Sir  William 
Phips  upon  Quebec.  In  1696  he  invaded  in  person  the  country  of  the 
Iroquois  and  inflicted  upon  them  a  crushing  defeat. 

Frontier  Posts.  The  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain  (1783) 
provided  that  the  boundary  of  the  United  States  should  be  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  St.  Clair,  Huron  and  Superior,  and  that  the  British 
should  at  once  evacuate  all  posts  within  the  United  States.  But  Great 
Britain  continued  to  hold  the  posts  on  the  Great  Lakes,  Oswegatchie 
(now  Ogdensburg),  Oswego,  Niagara,  Presque  Isle  (now  Erie),  San- 
dusky,. Detroit,  Mackinaw,  and  some  others  of  less  importance,  on  the 
ground  that  the  American  States  had  not  complied  with  the  require- 
ment that  debts  due  to  British  citizens  should  be  paid.  Again  their 
surrender  was  stipulated  in  the  Jay  Treaty,  and  they  were  finally  given 
up  in  June,  1796. 

Fry,  James  B.  (1827-1894),  an  officer  of  the  U.  S.  army,  was  chief 
of  staff  to  McDowell  and  Buell  from  1861  to  1863,  and  from  1863  to  1866 
occupied  the  responsible  and  difficult  post  of  provost-marshal-general  of 
the  army.  „    „ ,.  -- 

Fryeburg,  Me.,  scene  of  an  Indian  fight  in  April,  1725.  John 
Lovewell,  after  two  successful  expeditions  against  the  Indians,  under- 
taking a  third,  was  surprised  and  slain  at  this  place. 

Fuca,  Juan  de,  a  Greek  of  Cephalonia,  asserted  that  in  1592,  sailing 
in  the  Spanish  service  on  the  northwest  coast  of  America,  he  had  sailed 
Vol.  V.— 18 


374  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

into  a  strait  in  latitude  470  or  48°,  which  led  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
It  has  been  thought  that  this  was  the  strait  now  called  by  his  name,  but 
his  narrative  is  generally  disbelieved. 

Fugio,  also  known  as  Franklin  and  sun-dial  cents,  were  the  earliest 
copper  coins  struck  off  by  order  of  the  U.  S.  Government,  from  the  dies 
of  Abel  Buel,  in  1787.  The  first  was  struck  off  in  New  York.  Obverse  : 
Thirteen  linked  rings,  making  an  endless  chain.  Legend  :  United 
States,  inscribed  around  a  small  central  field  inclosing  inscription,  We 
are  one.  Reverse  :  An  erect  sun-dial,  sun  appearing  above.  Legend  : 
Fugio,  1787.     Exergue  :  Mind  your  business. 

Fugitive  Slaves,  Fugitive  Slave  I^aws.  In  all  the  colonies 
provision  was  made  by  law  for  the  arrest  and  return  of  fugitive  slaves. 
The  articles  of  confederation  between  the  New  England  colonies  in  1643 
provided  for  mutual  restoration  between  those  colonies.  Somersett's 
case  prevented  extradition  from  England.  The  Ordinance  for  the 
Northwest  Territory  provided  for  return  of  fugitives  thence.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  provided  that  no  fugitive  slave,  fleeing  into  a  free 
State,  should  therefore  be  free,  but  that  he  should  be  delivered  up  on 
claim  by  his  owner.  In  1793  Congress  passed  the  first  Fugitive  Slave 
Act,  providing  that,  on  the  owner's  giving  proof  of  ownership  before  a 
magistrate  of  the  locality  where  the  slave  was  found,  the  magistrate 
should  order  the  slave  delivered  up  to  him,  without  trial  by  jury. 
Hindering  arrest  or  harboring  a  runaway  slave  was  punishable  by  fine 
of  five  hundred  dollars.  The  law  was  open  to  much  abuse.  Many  free 
negroes  in  Northern  States  were  kidnaped.  Interference  with  captures 
and  rescue  of  arrested  negroes  became  more  frequent  as  anti-slavery 
feeling  increased  in  the  North.  In  Prigg  vs.  Pennsylvania  the  Supreme 
Court  held  that  the  law  must  be  carried  out  by  Federal  authorities  alone  ; 
States  or  State  authorities  could  not  be  forced  to  act  (1842).  Several 
States  then  forbade  them  to  do  so.  The  escape  of  slaves  to  Canada  was 
extensive,  and  systematically  aided  by  the  Underground  Railway. 
(See  art.)  In  1850,  as  a  part  of  the  compromise  measures  of  that  year, 
a  law  was  passed  providing  for  a  stricter  practice  in  the  matter,  through 
U.  S.  commissioners  appointed  by  the  U.  S.  courts.  Proof  of  identity 
and  two  witnesses  to  the  fact  of  escape  were  all  that  was  required  as 
evidence.  The  negro  could  not  testify,  nor  have  jury-trial.  Upon  this 
many  Northern  States  passed  ' '  Personal  Liberty  Laws ' '  for  the  protection 
of  negroes.  Some  of  these  conflicted  with  the  Act  of  1850  and  even 
with  the  Constitution.  The  Act  of  1850  aroused  great  feeling  in  the 
North,  the  "  Personal  Liberty  Laws"  in  the  South.  The  question  of 
fugitive  slaves  did  much  to  bring  on  the  Civil  War.     The  war  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  275 

emancipation  ended  the  whole  matter.     The  acts  were  repealed  in 
1864. 

Fuller,  Margaret,  Marchioness  of  Ossoli  (1810-1850),  of  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  a  woman  of  great  learning,  intellectual  gifts  and  social 
charm  and  influence,  and  a  prominent  leader  among  the  Transcendent- 
alists,  was  editor  of  the  Dial,  their  organ,  from  1840  to  1842.  She  took 
an  interesting  part  in  aiding  the  Italian  cause  in  1848,  and  was  ship- 
wrecked and  drowned  off  Long  Island  on  her  return. 

Fuller,  Melville  W.,  born  in  Maine  in  1833,  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1853,  and  was  a  lawyer  in  Chicago  from  1856  to 
1888.  In  1862  he  was  a  member  of  the  Illinois  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion. In  1888  he  was  appointed  by  President  Cleveland  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

Fulton,  Robert  (1765-1815),  practically  the  inventor  of  the  steam- 
boat, was  born  in  Pennsylvania.  At  first  a  portrait-painter,  he  went  to 
England  in  1786.  After  a  few  years  he  began  to  occupy  himself  with 
engineering  and  inventions.  The  subject  of  steam  navigation  already 
interested  him.  From  1797  to  1804  he  resided  in  France,  where,  invent- 
ing the  torpedo,  he  attempted  to  induce  Napoleon  to  adopt  it,  but  in 
vain.  In  England  (1804-06)  he  had  similar  want  of  success  with  the 
British  Ministry,  and  in  1806  returned  to  America.  At  New  York,  in 
1807,  he  successfully  realized  his  project  of  a  vessel  propelled  by  steam 
power,  his  steamboat,  the  "Clermont,"  successfully  steaming  from 
New  York  to  Albany.  His  invention  was  of  the  first  importance  in 
developing  the  interior  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Fundamental  Constitutions  of  Carolina,  an  elaborate  constitu- 
tion for  that  colony,  drawn  up  in  1667  for  the  proprietors  by  John 
Locke,  the  philosopher.  It  provided  for  a  territorial  aristocracy,  the 
proprietors  at  the  head  and  two  orders  of  nobility,  called  landgraves  and 
caciques,  below  them.  These  were  to  have  entailed  estates  called  seign- 
iories and  baronies.  The  proprietors  were  to  be  respectively  palatine, 
chancellor,  chief  justice,  constable,  admiral,  treasurer,  high  steward  and 
chamberlain.  There  was  to  be  a  palatine's  court,  a  grand  council  and 
a  parliament.  Property  qualifications  prevailed.  Some  religious  liberty 
was  granted.  The  whole  scheme  was  unsuited  to  the  needs  of  a  pioneer 
colony,  and  never  went  into  practical  operation. 

Funding,  the  converting  of  floating  debt  into  debt  having  a  defi- 
nite time  to  run  before  maturity,  usually  into  interest-bearing  bonds. 
The  most  famous  such  operation  in  United  States  history  was  that  ac- 
complished by  the  Act  of  August  4,   1790,  suggested  by  Hamilton,  a» 


276  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  It  provided  for  paying  in  full,  not  only  the 
foreign  and  domestic  debt  of  the  United  States,  but  also  those  debts 
which  the  States  had  incurred  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  by  means  of  six  per  cent,  bonds,  of  which,  in  the  case  of  the  do- 
mestic debt,  one-third  were  to  be  deferred  stock,  interest  beginning  to  be 
paid  in  1800.     (See  art.  Assumption.) 

Funston,  Frederick,  born  in  Ohio,  Nov.  9,  1865  ;  moved  to  Kansas 
with  his  parents,  1867.  Attended  public  school  and  Lawrence  Uni- 
versity, was  reporter  on  a  Kansas  City  paper,  1890,  and  was  made  bot- 
anist of  the  U.  S.  Death  Valley  expedition,  1891.  He  was  commis- 
sioned by  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  to  make  a  report  on  the 
flora  of  Alaska,  which  service  he  performed  1893-94,  and  in  which  he 
traversed  a  great  part  of  the  Yukon  River  alone  in  a  canoe.  Loving 
adventure,  he  joined  the  Insurgent  Army  in  Cuba  in  1896,  and  after 
serving  eighteen  months  was  badly  wounded  and  returned  to  the  United 
States.  In  the  war  with  Spain  he  was  commissioned  Colonel  of  the  20th 
Kansas  Volunteers,  1898,  and  after  fighting  in  Cuba  went  to  the  Philip- 
pines, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  great  gallantry  in  several  en- 
gagements.    He  was  promoted  to  Brigadier-General,  May  2,  1899. 

Fur-trade.  This  trade,  especially  that  in  beaver,  was  an  important 
element  in  the  economic  life  of  all  the  colonies  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  struggle  between  England  and  France  for  the  posses- 
sion of  North  America,  also  in  all  negotiations  respecting  the  north- 
west boundary  of  the  United  States.  As  the  trade  receded  farther  and 
farther  to  the  northwest,  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  and  the  Northwest 
Company,  established  in  1783  by  England,  tried  to  monopolize  it.  In 
1809  John  Jacob  Astor  secured  the  incorporation  of  the  American  Fur 
Company.  He  founded  Astoria  in  Oregon,  and  attempted  to  connect  it 
with  Mackinaw  by  a  line  of  posts  and  consolidate  the  whole  northwestern 
fur-trade.  After  the  War  of  181 2  he  renewed  his  attempt.  In  1816 
Congress  passed  an  act  excluding  foreign  fur-traders. 

Fuss  and  Feathers,  the  army  nickname  for  General  Winfield 
Scott,  also  used  politically  when  he  ran  for  the  Presidency  in  1852  ;  due 
to  his  punctiliousness  as  to  dress. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  277 


Gabriel's  Insurrection,  an  insurrection  incited  among  the  negro 
slaves  of  the  vicinity  of  Richmond,  Va.,  in  1800,  by  a  slave  of  Thomas 
Prosser,  called  "  General  Gabriel,"  and  "Jack  Bowler."  They  in- 
tended to  attack  Richmond  by  night  with  a  thousand  negroes  and  mur- 
der the  inhabitants.  An  escaped  negro  revealed  the  plot.  Governor 
James  Monroe  ordered  out  the  militia  and  attacked  the  insurgents. 
The  ringleaders  were  captured  and  executed. 

Gadsden,  James  (1788- 1858),  served  in  the  War  of  181 2,  was  aide- 
de-camp  to  General  Jackson  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Seminole  Indians, 
and  constructed  works  for  the  defense  of  the  Gulf.  He  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Mexico  in  1853  by  President  Pierce,  and  negotiated  the 
Gadsden  Treaty,  which  secured  the  purchase  of  the  southern  portion  of 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

Gadsden  Treaty  was  a  treaty  negotiated  with  Mexico  in  1853  by 
James  Gadsden.  By  this  treaty  the  United  States  secured  45,000  square 
miles  of  land  in  what  is  now  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  The  United 
States  paid  Mexico  $10,000,000,  but  received  a  considerably  larger 
amount  from  Mexico  for  Indian  depredation  claims. 

Gage,  layman  J,,  banker,  Chicago,  111.  Born  1836,  De  Ruyter, 
N.  Y.  Became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  President  McKinley's  Cab- 
inet, March  5,  1897. 

Gage,  Thomas  (1721-1787),  came  to  America  in  1754  in  command 
of  a  regiment  accompanying  Braddock's  expedition.  He  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Montreal  in  1760,  and  from  1763  to  1772  was  commander-in- 
chief  in  America.  In  1774  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  attempted  to  subdue  the  antagonism  of  the  colonists  to  English  rule. 
In  1775  he  sent  troops  to  destroy  stores  collected  at  Concord,  and  this 
led  to  the  battle  of  Lexington.  The  colonists  refused  to  recognize  Gage 
as  Governor,  and  soon  after  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  he  resigned  his 
commission. 

Gag-rule.  A  rule  adopted  by  Congress  in  January,  1836,  on  motion 
of  John  C.  Calhoun.  Congress  had  long  been  besieged  by  petitions 
from  abolitionists  all  over  the  country.  Calhoun  proposed  that  hence- 
forth all  anti-slavery  petitions  be  laid  on  the  table  unnoticed.  This  in- 
fringement upon  the  right  of  petition  only  increased  the  petition  spirit 


a78  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

in  the  North,  and  the  "gag-rule "  was,  after  a  long  struggle,  abolished 
December  3,  1844.  John  Quincy  Adams  was  its  bitterest  opponent  and 
an  ardent  upholder  of  anti-slavery  principles  in  Congress  during  ten 
years. 

Gaines,  Edmund  P.  (1777-1849),  served  during  the  War  of  1812, 
and  was  promoted  major-general  for  services  in  defense  of  Fort  Erie  in 
1814.  He  was  Commissioner  to  the  Seminole  Indians  in  1816,  and  took 
command  against  them  in  181 7. 

Gaines,  Myra  Clark  (1805-1885),  wife  of  Edmund  P.  Gaines,  was 
for  many  years  plaintiff  in  an  extraordinary  lawsuit  to  recover  the  estate 
of  her  father,  Daniel  Clark.  Her  claim  included  much  valuable  prop- 
erty in  New  Orleans,  estimated  at  135,000,000. 

Gaines*  Mills,  or  Chiekahominy,  Va.,  June  27,  1862.  In  this 
engagement  of  the  Civil  War  Porter,  commanding  25,000  troops  of 
McClellan's  army,  was  defeated  by  Lee  with  a  Confederate  force  of 
35,000.  On  the  morning  of  June  27  Porter  fell  back  to  a  range  of  low 
hills,  and  there  repelled  the  Confederate  attack  until  5,000  more  men 
were  sent  him  by  McClellan.  Meantime  Jackson  had  joined  Lee  with 
18,500  more  troops.  A.  P.  Hill  first  attacked  Porter's  position,  and  was 
driven  back  with  great  loss  after  a  two  hours'  struggle.  Then  Jackson 
came  up  and  joined  the  attack.  Porter,  having  no  intrenchments,  was 
forced  to  give  way  before  the  superior  numbers.  He  crossed  the  Chiek- 
ahominy in  rapid  retreat,  and  burned  the  bridges  behind  him. 

Gallatin,  Albert  (January  29,  1761— August  12,  1849),  was  Dorn  at 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  and  is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  American  states- 
men of  foreign  birth.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native 
city,  and  emigrated  to  America  in  1780.  After  varied  experiences  he 
settled  as  a  manufacturer  in  Pennsylvania  in  1784.  By  1790  he  was  in 
the  Legislature.  His  rise  to  State  and  national  prominence  as  a  leader 
in  the  Democratic-Republican  party  was  rapid.  He  was  elected  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1793,  but  was  not  admitted  to  his  seat.  The  following  year 
he  helped  by  his  influence  to  suppress  the  Whiskey  Insurrection.  From 
1795  to  1801  he  was  a  member  from  Pennsylvania  of  the  National  House 
of  Representatives,  and  took  a  leading  part  almost  from  the  start, 
especially  on  financial  topics.  When  his  party  came  into  power  with 
Jefferson,  Gallatin  was  invited  to  take  the  Treasury  portfolio.  He  filled 
this  position  from  1801  to  1813  and  has  passed  into  history  as  one  of  the 
ablest  American  financiers.  In  1813-14  he  was  Peace  Commissioner  in 
Europe,  where  his  services  in  negotiating  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  were 
conspicuous.     He  was  U.  S.  Minister  to  France  1816-1823,  and  in  1826  he 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  279 

was  sent  as  Envoy  Extraordinary  to  Great  Britain.  He  was  later  a  bank 
president  in  New  York  City,  and  died  at  Astoria  on  Long  Island.  Gal- 
latin published  various  pamphlets  on  finance,  on  the  Oregon  question, 
on  the  War  with  Mexico,  "  Considerations  on  the  Currency  and  Bank- 
ing System  of  the  United  States"  (1831)  ;  he  was  moreover  an  eth- 
nologist, and  published  "Synopsis  of  the  Indian  Tribes"  (1836)  and 
other  works. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  H.  (1 787-1851),  was  the  first  to  undertake  in 
America  the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes  (1817),  and  founded  at  Hartford 
an  institution  for  that  purpose. 

Galveston,  Tex.,  was  first  settled  in  1816,  but  first  permanently 
settled  in  1838.  From  1817  to  1821  it  was  the  haunt  of  the  famous  pirate 
Lafitte. 

Galvefc,  Bernardo  de  (i755~I786),  count,  was  born  in  Spain,  be- 
came colonel  in  Louisiana  in  1776  and  was  Governor  from  1777  to  1783. 
He  aided  the  colonies  against  the  British  in  the  Revolutionary  War  and 
was  made  Viceroy  of  Mexico  in  1785. 

Gananoqui  (near  Thousand  Islands,  Can.).  Here  Captain  Forsyth, 
with  slight  loss,  captured,  on  September  20,  181 2,  a  large  supply  of  am- 
munition and  provisions  from  the  British,  whose  loss  was  ten  killed  and 
twelve  taken  prisoners. 

Gansevoort,  Peter  (1 749-1812),  bom  in  New  York,  accompanied 
Montgomery  to  Canada  in  1775  ;  withstood  the  British  and  Indians  at 
Fort  Schuyler  in  1777  ;  was  appointed  Indian  Commissioner  and  pro- 
moted brigadier-general  in  1809. 

Garfield,  James  Abram  (Nov.  19,  183 1— Sept.  19,  1881),  twentieth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Orange,  Cuyahoga  County,  O., 
and  after  miscellaneous  experiences,  including  work  on  a  canal  tow-path, 
he  entered  Hiram  College  in  Ohio.  From  there  he  went  to  Williams 
College,  and  graduated  in  1856.  For  a  short  time  he  taught  the  classics 
in  Hiram  College,  and  in  1857  became  the  president  of  that  institution. 
Two  years  later  he  entered  the  State  Senate.  In  the  opening  year  of 
the  war  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteers  ;  having  been 
intrusted  with  a  small  independent  command  he  routed  the  Confed- 
erates at  Middle  Creek,  Ky.,  January  10,  1862.  He  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general,  served  at  Shiloh,  etc.,  and  became  chief  of  staff  in  Rosecran's 
Army  of  the  Cumberland.  In  this  capacity  he  rendered  important  serv- 
ices, and  was  made  major-general  after  Chickamauga.  He  had  been 
already  elected  to  Congress,  and  took  his  seat  in  December,  1863. 


28o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

From  this  time  he  served  continuously  and  was  one  of  the  leading  de- 
baters and  orators  on  the  Republican  side.  He  was  member  of  impor- 
tant committees,  like  Military  Affairs  and  Ways  and  Means,  and  was 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Banking  and  Currency  and  on  Appro- 
priations. General  Garfield  served  on  the  Electoral  Commission  of 
2877  and  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  Ohio  in  1880.  The  same  year 
he  attended  the  National  Convention,  and  on  the  thirty-sixth  ballot 
received  the  nomination,  through  the  influence  of  Blaine.  Entering 
office  March  4,  1881,  he  chose  Blaine  for  the  State  Department,  Windom 
for  the  Treasury,  and  R.  T.  Lincoln  for  War.  He  became  almost  imme- 
diately involved  in  the  Republican  factional  quarrels  of  New  York. 
His  appointment  of  the  "  Half-Breed  "  Robertson  to  the  collectorship 
of  New  York  caused  the  "  Stalwart "  Senators,  Conkling  and  Piatt,  to 
resign  and  demand  a  "vindication."  In  the  midst  of  these  proceed- 
ings President  Garfield  was  shot  at  Washington,  July  2,  by  a  fanatic, 
Guiteau.  He  lingered  through  the  summer,  was  removed  in  September 
to  Elberon,  New  Jersey,  and  there  passed  away. 

Garland,  Augustus  H.,  was  born  in  Tennessee  in  1832.  He  op- 
posed secession  in  the  State  Convention  in  1861,  but  served  in  the  Con- 
federate Congress  till  the  close  of  the  war.  He  won  the  famous  test- 
oath  case  in  1866,  and  in  1874  was  chosen  Governor  of  Arkansas.  He 
served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1876  to  1885,  and  was  Attorney-General 
in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1885  to  1889.     Died  1899. 

Garner  Case  (1856),  the  saddest  of  many  noted  fugitive  slave  cases. 
Simeon  Garner,  his  son  and  their  families  escaped  from  Kentucky  to 
Cincinnati.  They  were  pursued  and  after  a  desperate  struggle  captured. 
Margaret  Garner,  in  order  to  save  her  children  from  slavery,  had  at- 
tempted to  kill  them  during  the  struggle,  and  one  was  found  dead  when 
the  fugitives  were  captured.  The  courts  decided  upon  returning  the 
slaves.  On  their  way  back  to  Kentucky  Margaret  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  drown  herself  and  child. 

Garnett,  Roberts.  (1819-1861),  born  in  Virginia,  was  a  Democratic 
Representative  from  Virginia  from  1817  to  1827.  He  voted  alone 
against  the  recognition  of  the  South  American  Republics.  Command- 
ing Confederate  forces  in  West  Virginia,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Carrick's  Ford  in  1861. 

Garrison,  William  I/loyd  (1805-1879),  was  born  in  Massachusetts. 
He  began  his  career  in  the  employ  of  the  Newburyport  Herald  in  1818, 
making  anonymous  contributions  reproving  the  general  apathy  on  the 
subject  of  slavery.     Between  1826  and  1831  he  edited  various  emancipa- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  281 

tion  papers,  among  them  the  Herald,  Free  Press,  National  Philanthro- 
pist, Journal  of  the  Times  and  the  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation. 
He  also  delivered  series  of  lectures  in  the  interest  of  emancipation. 
From  1831  to  i860  he  edited  the  Liberator,  which  exerted  an  immense 
influence  against  slavery.  In  1832  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society 
was  formed  and  organized  by  him,  and  soon  afterward  he  became  its 
president.  His  efforts  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  were  unceasing  until 
the  emancipation  proclamation  of  President  Lincoln  had  gone  into 
effect.  His  influence  in  the  anti-slavery  cause  was  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  man. 

Gary,  James  A.,  born  in  1833,  college  graduate,  cotton  manufac- 
turer, banker  and  politician.     Postmaster-General  from  1897  to  1898. 

Gas-light  was  first  successfully  introduced  into  Boston  in  1822,  into 
New  York  in  1823,  into  Philadelphia  in  1835. 

"  Gaspee."  During  the  spring  of  1772  the  British  armed  schooner 
"  Gaspee  "  remained  in  Narragansett  Bay  and  annoyed  the  inhabitants 
along  the  coast  by  excessive  zeal  in  the  suppression  of  smuggling. 
Chief  Justice  Hopkins,  of  Rhode  Island,  sent  a  sheriff  on  board  to  know 
by  what  authority  Dudingston,  her  commander,  acted,  and  found  he 
was  upheld  by  the  British  admiral.  June  9,  the  "  Gaspee  "  gave  chase 
to  the  "  Providence,"  a  small  packet,  and  ran  aground  near  Pawtuxet. 
That  night  a  party  of  citizens  attacked  her,  wounded  and  captured  Dud- 
ingston and  the  crew,  and  burned  the  ' '  Gaspee. ' '  Efforts  to  bring  the 
perpetrators  to  justice  failed. 

Gates,  Horatio  (1728-1806),  general,  born  in  England,  came  to 
America  in  1755,  and  was  a  captain  in  Braddock's  expedition.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  the 
colonial  army,  and  in  1777  commanded  the  Northern  forces  and  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  British  at  Saratoga.  Highly  honored  for 
this  success  he  overestimated  his  abilities  and  conspired  to  gain  chief 
command  of  the  colonial  army,  but  his  schemes  were  disclosed.  In 
1780  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Southern  army,  and  met  with  a 
severe  defeat  at  Camden.  He  was  retired  from  command,  and  was  not 
acquitted  by  court-martial  from  blame  for  this  defeat  until  1782. 

Gates,  Sir  Thomas,  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  under  the 
Virginia  Company,  and  came  to  Virginia  in  1609  with  seven  ships.  The 
colony  did  not  prosper,  and  Gates  was  sent  to  England  in  1610,  returning 
with  men  and  provisions  in  161 1.  He  assumed  the  government,  and  the 
colony  became  more  prosperous  under  his  rule,  which  continued  till 
1614,  when  he  returned  to  England. 


282  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Galling,  Richard  J.,  was  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1818.  He  has 
invented  various  labor-saving  devices,  but  is  best  known  as  inventor  of 
the  revolving  battery-gun  bearing  his  name,  which  is  capable  of  firing 
1,200  shots  per  minute. 

Geary,  John  W.  (1819-1873),  commanded  at  Chapultepec  in  1846, 
was  prominent  in  California  politics  from  1849  to  I^52,  was  Governor  of 
Kansas,  1856-57,  and  during  the  Rebellion  won  distinction  at  Bolivar 
Heights,  Cedar  Mountain  and  Lookout  Mountain,  being  promoted 
major-general.     He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1866  to  1873. 

General.  This  grade  was  first  created  by  Act  of  Congress  March  3, 
1799,  and  General  Washington  was  appointed  to  fill  it.  The  office  was 
abolished  in  1802.  It  was  not  revived  again  until  1866,  when  General 
Grant  was  appointed.  On  the  election  of  Grant  to  the  Presidency, 
William  T.  Sherman  succeeded  him  in  the  grade  of  general.  On  the 
retirement  of  General  Sherman,  November  1,  1883,  the  office  again  be- 
came extinct.  It  was  revived  for  a  brief  time  (June  to  August,  1888) , 
for  Lieutenant-General  Philip  H.  Sheridan.  Since  his  death  in  1888  the 
office  has  ceased  to  exist,  as  has  that  of  lieutenant-general,  the  highest 
officer  in  the  army  being  designated  as  the  general  commanding. 

Gene't,  3£dmond  C.  (1765-1834),  was  born  in  France.  He  was 
appointed  Minister  to  the  United  States  in  1792,  and  arrived  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  in  1793.  He  immediately  took  steps  to  induce  the  United 
States  to  aid  France  in  her  troubles  with  Great  Britain,  and  unlawfully 
commissioned  privateers  from  American  ports.  The  executive  had  de- 
termined upon  neutrality.  Gen£t  succeeded  for  a  time  in  arousing  en- 
thusiasm among  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and  acted  so  impru- 
dently that  Washington's  administration  requested  his  recall  in  1794. 
He  was  afterward  naturalized  and  became  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

Geneva  Arbitration.  A  tribunal  of  arbitration  assembled  at 
Geneva  in  Switzerland,  December  15,  1871,  to  arbitrate  upon  the  "  Ala- 
bama "  claims.  (See  art.)  The  tribunal  consisted  of  Count  Federigo 
Sclopis,  of  Italy  ;  Viscount  Itajuba,  of  Brazil  ;  Mr.  Jacques  Staempfli, 
of  Switzerland  ;  Charles  Francis  Adams,  of  the  United  States,  and  Sir 
Alexander  Cockburn,  of  England.  The  tribunal  decided  that  an  award 
of  compensation  for  the  "  indirect  claims  "  advanced  by  America  was 
not  in  keeping  with  the  principles  of  international  law.  This  prelimi- 
nary decision  was  accepted.  The  tribune  also  decided  that  Great  Britain 
had  not  exercised  due  diligence  in  preventing  the  construction,  equip- 
ment and  provisioning  of  such  ships  as  the  "  Alabama  "  ;  that  $I5,50<V 
000  should  be  awarded  in  a  gross  sum  to  the  United  States,  but  no  com- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  283 

pensation  should  be  made  for  the  pursuit  of  cruisers  or  for  prospective 
earnings. 

Geneva  Convention.  A  convention  was  concluded  in  1864  for  the 
amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  wounded  in  armies  in  the  field,  be- 
tween Switzerland,  Baden,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Spain,  France,  Hesse, 
Italy,  Netherlands,  Portugal,  Prussia  and  Wiirtemberg,  and  acceded  to 
by  most  civilized  nations,  including  the  United  States.  Additional 
articles  in  1868  extended  to  naval  forces  the  advantages  of  the  previous 
convention. 

Geographer  of  the  United  States,  an  office  created  by  the  Act  of 
May  20,  1785.  The  geographer's  duties  consisted  in  the  supervision  of 
surveys  and  in  the  transmission  to  the  Board  of  Treasury  of  the  series 
of  plats  whenever  the  seven  ranges  of  townships  had  been  surveyed . 

Geological  Survey.  The  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  was  established 
by  Congress  in  March,  1879,  as  a  bureau  of  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior. The  interior  surveys,  topographical  and  geological,  heretofore 
carried  on  by  other  government  agencies,  were  confided  to  it. 

George  II.  (1 683-1 760),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1727  to  1760, 
granted  in  1732  a  tract  of  country  from  the  reserved  Carolina  tract  to 
James  Oglethorpe  and  a  company  formed  by  him.  The  government  of 
the  colony  was  to  be  conducted  by  the  proprietors  during  twenty  years, 
and  after  that  time  the  form  of  government  was  to  be  decided  by  the 
king.  In  1749  George  II.  granted  to  the  Ohio  Company,  formed  by 
certain  wealthy  Virginians,  500,000  acres  of  land,  on  which  they  were 
to  plant  100  families,  and  were  to  build  and  maintain  a  fort.  His  reign 
is  chiefly  memorable  in  American  history  for  the  conquest  of  Canada. 

George  III.  (1738-1820),  son  of  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  England  in  1760.  His  obstinate  determination 
to  increase  the  royal  authority  had  much  to  do  with  the  provoking  of 
American  resistance.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  insisted 
merely  upon  maintaining  the  right  to  tax  the  colonies,  but  when  they 
showed  persistent  determination  he  became  exasperated  and  wrote, 
"Every  means  of  distressing  America  must  meet  with  my  concur- 
rence." Under  his  direction  the  war  was  prosecuted  with  vigor  and  he 
reluctantly  consented  to  peace  in  1782.  He  was  kind-hearted,  upright 
and  truthful,  with  a  very  forcible  character,  but  was  narrow-minded 
and  obstinate. 

George,  Henry,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1839,  *s  well  known  as  a 
writer  upon  economics.     He  published  various  newspapers  in  California 


2S4  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

from  1858  to  1879.  He  first  became  prominent  through  his  work, 
"  Progress  and  Poverty,"  which  advocates  a  common  ownership  of  land 
to  be  brought  about  by  taxing  land  to  the  full  amount  of  the  rent.  He 
is  the  author  of  "  Social  Problems,"  "  Protection  or  Free  Trade,"  etc. 
Died  October  29,  1897. 

George,  Fort  (Niagara  River).  In  the  War  of  181 2,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  York  by  the  Americans,  they  moved  against  Fort  George.  On 
May  27,  1813,  the  troops  were  landed  under  cover  of  the  guns  of  the 
fleet.  The  attack,  led  by  Colonel  Winfield  Scott  and  Commodore 
Perry,  was  successful.  The  British,  after  spiking  the  guns  and  destroy- 
ing the  ammunition,  abandoned  the  fort.  Soon  after,  Forts  Erie  and 
Chippewa  were  likewise  abandoned,  and  the  whole  Niagara  frontier 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans. 

Georgia,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States,  was  founded  by  Ogle- 
thorpe in  1733  as  a  refuge  for  debtors.  The  territory  was  originally 
claimed  by  the  Spanish  Government,  who  explored  it.  In  1663  it  con- 
stituted a  part  of  the  Carolinas,  but  in  1732  it  was  set  apart  and  given  to 
James  Oglethorpe  and  others,  to  be  held  in  trust  for  twenty-one  years. 
The  territory  was  styled  Georgia  in  honor  of  George  II.,  and  included 
the  land  between  the  Savannah  and  the  Altamaha  and,  the  South  Sea. 
The  colony  was  expected  to  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  Carolinas  against 
the  Spaniards  of  Florida.  In  1752  Georgia  became  a  royal  colony.  In 
1763  the  southern  boundary  was  extended  to  St.  Mary's  River  and  the 
western  boundary  to  the  Mississippi.  The  State  suffered  greatly  from 
war  and  disorder  during  the  Revolution.  The  first  Constitution  was 
made  in  1777  ;  the  present  in  1868.  January  2,  1788,  Georgia  unani- 
mously ratified  the  National  Constitution.  In  1798  the  western  territory 
of  the  State  was  organized  into  the  Mississippi  Territory  by  the  U.  S. 
Government.  Georgia's  claims  were  satisfied  in  1802  by  the  payment 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States  of  $1, 250,000,  and  the  promise  to  pur- 
chase for  Georgia  the  claims  of  the  Indians  to  lands  within  the  State. 
In  1795  occurred  the  "  Yazoo  fraud,"  by  which  the  western  territory 
was  sold  to  land  companies.  The  sale  was  afterward  repealed,  and  the 
landholders  were  compensated  by  the  National  Government.  The 
State  authorities  demanded  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  1802  rela- 
tive to  the  Indian  removal,  but  not  until  1826  did  the  General  Govern- 
ment succeed  in  obtaining  the  Georgian  lands  of  the  Creeks.  The 
Creeks,  however,  refused  to  move,  and  were  protected  by  the  decision  of 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  The  Indians  were  eventually  driven  out  by  the 
authorities  of  Georgia,  as  President  Jackson  refused  to  support  the  de- 
cision of  the  court.     Georgia  seceded  January  19,  1861.     During  the  war 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  285 

Confederate  prisons  were  established  at  Andersonville  and  Millen. 
General  Sherman,  marching  through  Georgia,  captured  Atlanta,  Sep- 
tember 2,  1864,  and  Savannah,  December  21.  The  reconstruction  of  the 
State  was  delayed  until  July,  1870,  because  of  the  refusal  to  extend  the 
suffrage  to  the  blacks.  Since  reconstruction  the  State  has  been  uni- 
formly Democratic.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1790  was  82,548  ; 
in  1890  it  was  1,837,353.     Histories  by  Jones  and  by  Stevens. 

"  Georgia,"  an  iron  steamboat  built  at  Glasgow  in  1863  and  used  as 
a  Confederate  cruiser.  She  sailed  from  Glasgow  in  April,  1863,  under 
the  name  of  the  "Japan."  She  destroyed  a  large  number  of  Union 
merchant  ships  along  the  French  coast,  and  then  sailed  for  England, 
where  it  was  given  out  she  was  to  be  chartered  by  the  Portuguese  Gov- 
ernment. She  was  nevertheless  seized,  August  15,  1863,  by  Captain 
Craven,  commanding  the  United  States  ship  "Niagara,"  and  returned 
to  England. 

Gerard,  Conrad  A.,  died  in  1790.  He  was  the  first  French  Min- 
ister to  the  United  States.  Having  negotiated  the  treaty  between 
France  and  the  United  States,  he  came  to  America  in  1778,  returned  in 
1779,  and  was  active  in  the  negotiations  with  Great  Britain  in  1782. 

Germaine,  I<ord  George  (1 716-1785),  was  appointed  colonial  sec- 
retary by  George  III.  of  England  iu  1775,  and  superintended  the  con- 
duct of  the  British  forces  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  He  advocated 
vigorous  measures  against  the  colonies,  enlisted  the  services  of  the  Six 
Nations,  and  was  influential  in  the  bribery  of  Benedict  Arnold.  Re- 
signed in  1782. 

Germans.  There  were  more  Germans  in  Pennsylvania  than  in  any 
other  of  the  colonies.  Penn  encouraged  their  immigration.  They 
were  largely  of  sects  persecuted  in  Germany.  They  were  averse  to  war 
and  indifferent  to  politics,  but  had  important  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  manufactures.  Palatine,  Moravian  and  other  Germans  were 
also  settled  in  large  numbers  in  Maryland,  New  York,  Virginia  and 
the  Carolinas,  and  Salzburgers  in  Georgia.  They  were  sober  and  in- 
dustrious. In  the  Revolution  they  were  in  general  not  active.  Of  im- 
migrants into  the  United  States  since  1820,  more  than  one-third  have 
been  Germans.  The  revolutionary  movements  of  1848  caused  the  emi- 
gration of  large  numbers  to  the  United  States. 

Germantown,  Battle  of  (October  4,  1777).  Howe  after  occupying 
Philadelphia  sent  a  considerable  detachment  down  the  river  to  seize 
Forts  Mercer  and  Mifflin.  When  Washington  learned  of  this  he  deter- 
mined to  crush  the  British  at  Germantown.     In  the  early  morning  of 


286  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

October  4  his  army  in  two  columns,  the  center  under  Sullivan,  the  left 
under  Greene,  advanced  upon  the  village.  The  central  column  drove 
in  the  British  outposts  and  was  forcing  back  the  British  line  opposite. 
Greene  also  was  driving  the  right  back  when  an  accident  happened  to 
destroy  the  whole  plan.  Stephen,  who  was  upon  the  right  of  Greene's 
division,  came  on  through  the  heavy  fog,  and  mistaking  the  American 
left-center  for  the  enemy,  charged  upon  them.  This  at  once  caused  a 
panic  and  the  battle  was  lost.  However,  the  troops  retreated  in  good 
order  before  Cornwallis,  who  had  hurried  from  Philadelphia  with  two 
battalions.     The  Americans  lost  673,  the  British  575. 

Geronimo,  a  chief  of  the  Chiricahuas  of  the  Apache  tribe  of  In- 
dians. He  was  captured  by  General  Miles  in  1886  for  making  depreda- 
tions, and  was  placed  under  surveillance  at  Fort  Perkins,  Florida. 

Gerry,  Elbridge  (1744-1814),  Vice-President,  born  in  Massachu, 
setts,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  colonial  House  of  Represent- 
atives from  1772  to  1775  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1776  to  1780  and  from  1783  to  1785.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  aided  in  framing  the  Constitution,  but  refused  to 
sign  it,  believing  that  too  great  powers  were  delegated  to  the  National 
Government.  He  was  elected  a  Representative  from  Massachusetts  to 
the  first  U.  S.  Congress  in  1789  and  served  till  1793.  He  was  a  special 
commissioner  to  France  in  1797  with  Pinckney  and  Marshall,  and  was 
elected  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1810  and  181 1.  He  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  181 2  as  a  Democrat  and  served 
until  his  death  (1813-1814).     Life  by  Austin. 

Gerrymander,  an  arrangement  of  the  boundaries  of  election  dis- 
tricts so  contrived  as  to  secure  an  unfair  advantage  to  the  dominant 
party.  In  colonial  times  elections  were  by  counties  or  by  towns,  and 
the  gerrymander  was  not  developed.  The  first  gerrymander  has  been 
said  to  be  an  arrangement  of  Patrick  Henry's,  whereby  Madison  should 
not  be  elected  to  the  First  Congress.  But  in  reality  the  districting  of 
Virginia  at  that  time  was  not  clearly  unfair.  The  name  arose  from  a 
redistricting  scheme  carried  out  by  the  Republicans  of  Massachusetts 
in  181 1,  in  accordance  with  which  the  Essex  District  bore  a  fanciful  re- 
semblance to  a  salamander.  Hence  the  name  "gerrymander"  was 
given  to  it  from  Governor  Elbridge  Gerry,  under  whom  the  act  was 
passed.  The  practice  has  since  become  well-nigh  universal  in  Amer- 
ican politics,  with  most  injurious  effects  upon  public  morality. 

Getty,  George  W.,  born  in  1819,  was  promoted  major-general  for 
gallantry  during  the  Civil  War,  serving  in  the  Virginia  campaign  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  287 

having  a  command  at  Yorktown,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg  and  the 
Wilderness.  He  defended  Washington,  and  served  in  the  Shenandoah 
campaign.     He  retired  in  1883. 

Gettysburg,  Pa.,  a  memorable  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  considered 
the  turning  point  of  the  struggle  between  the  Confederates  and  Fed- 
erals. The  Confederates  numbering  70,000,  under  Lee,  were  defeated 
by  the  Union  Army,  led  by  Meade,  finally  numbering  93,000.  The 
battle  occurred  July  1-3,  1863.  Lee,  having  pushed  thus  far  in  his 
great  invasion  of  the  North,  lay  at  Chambersburg  awaiting  the  results 
of  disturbances  among  the  ' '  Copperhead  "  faction  in  the  Northern  cities. 
Ewell  was  posted  between  York  and  Carlisle  with  a  strong  Confederate 
force.  Longstreet's  columns  and  Stuart's  cavalry  were  also  separated 
from  the  main  Confederate  command.  Meade  had  just  taken  com- 
mand of  the  National  troops,  vice  Hooker,  resigned,  had  ordered  the 
evacuation  of  Harper's  Ferry,  and  contemplated  a  concentration  of  his 
forces  at  Pipe  Creek,  fifteen  miles  from  Gettysburg,  hoping  to  offer 
battle  to  Lee  at  that  place.  The  absence  of  Stuart's  cavalry  prevented 
Lee  from  ascertaining  the  strength  of  the  Nationals.  Meade's  plans  of 
battle  at  Pipe  Creek  were  frustrated,  July  1,  by  an  attack  by  the  Con- 
federates upon  Reynolds'  division  at  Gettysburg.  Reynolds,  though 
supported  by  Buford's  cavalry,  was  routed  and  killed.  The  fighting 
became  general.  Ewell's  and  Longstreet's  columns  had  arrived,  and 
Meade  sent  Howard  to  assume  command  of  the  National  field.  Howard 
placed  his  forces  upon  the  right,  extending  his  line  beyond  the  town 
to  the  north.  This  line  was  broken  in  the  center  by  Lee's  repeated 
charges,  but  not  without  severe  losses  to  the  Confederates.  Hancock 
arrived  and  rallied  the  Federals,  placing  his  line  along  Round  Top  and 
Little  Round  Top,  two  strong  positions.  The  National  line  now  was, 
beginning  with  the  right :  Slocum's,  Howard's,  Hancock's  and  Sykes', 
with  Sedgwick  in  reserve.  The  bloodiest  fighting  of  the  day,  July  2, 
was  between  Vincent's  and  Hood's  men  on  Little  Round  Top.  The 
battles  of  the  first  two  days  were  indecisive.  Meade  began  the  attack 
July  3,  by  driving  Ewell  from  his  position  on  Rock  Creek.  Then  fol- 
lowed Pickett's  disastrous  charge  upon  Cemetery  Ridge,  in  which  4,600 
Confederates  were  killed  and  wounded.  Lee  was  obliged  to  retreat. 
The  Nationals  lost  23,003  killed  and  wounded;  the  Confederate  loss 
was  officially  reported  as  20,451.  Many  generals  were  killed  on  both 
sides. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  between  British  and 
American  commissioners,  assembled  at  Ghent  in  1814.  Clay,  Adams, 
Gallatin,    Bayard  and   Russell  represented   the  United  States.      The 


288  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

treaty  was  concluded  December  24,  1814,  and  was  ratified  early  in  1815. 
It  provided  for  universal  peace  between  the  belligerents  ;  the  mutual 
restoration  of  territory,  property  and  archives  ;  a  cessation  of  hostilities 
immediately  upon  ratification  ;  a  restoration  of  prisoners  of  war  ;  an 
establishment  of  the  disputed  northeastern  boundary  by  construction 
of  the  treaty  of  1783,  with  possible  final  reference  to  some  friendly 
power  ;  other  boundary  questions  to  be  disposed  of  in  a  similar  man- 
ner ;  and  a  mutual  promotion  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 
Nothing  was  said  of  the  impressment  of  seamen,  the  search  of  American 
vessels,  and  the  oppressive  decrees  respecting  neutral  commerce,  the 
three  grievances  which  mainly  caused  the  war. 

Gherardi,  Bancroft,  born  in  1832,  nephew  of  George  Bancroft, 
entered  the  navy  in  1846,  was  made  lieutenant-commander  in  1862,  and 
in  command  of  the  "  Port  Royal  "  distinguished  himself  at  Mobile  Bay. 
He  became  a  commodore  in  1884,  and  a  rear-admiral  in  1886. 

Gibbon,  John,  born  in  1827,  served  during  the  Mexican  War  and  in 
the  Civil  War,  on  the  Federal  side,  taking  part  in  the  battles  of  South 
Mountain,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  Gettysburg  and 
the  Wilderness.  He  is  author  of  an  essay  on  "  Our  Indian  Question." 
Died  1896. 

Gibbons,  James,  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born  in  Maryland  in 
1834,  ordained  a  priest  in  1861,  became  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  in  1877 
and  was  confirmed  cardinal  in  1886.     See  appendix,  page  483. 

Gibson,  Randall  I,.  (1832-1892),  Senator,  entered  the  Confederate 
army  as  a  private,  and  rose  to  various  commands  at  Shiloh,  Murfrees- 
boro  and  Chickamauga.  He  represented  Louisiana  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress from  1875  to  1883,  and  in  the  Senate  from  1883  to  1892. 

Giddings,  Joshua  R.  (1795-1864),  was  born  in  Pennsylvania.  He 
served  in  the  Ohio  militia  during  the  War  of  181 2,  after  which  he 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1820.  He  was  elected  to 
the  State  Legislature  in  1826,  and  was  a  Representative  from  Ohio  in 
the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1838  to  1859,  during  which  time  he  was  promi- 
nent as  an  advocate  of  the  right  of  petition  and  one  of  the  foremost 
opponents  of  slavery.  In  1842  he  was  censured  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives for  his  advocacy  of  anti-slavery  measures.  He  at  once 
resigned,  and  was  triumphantly  re-elected.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
Consul-General  in  Canada,  and  in  1^64  published  a  history  of  the 
Rebellion. 

Gilbert,   Sit   Humphrey   (1539-1584),   English  navigator,  half- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  289 

brother  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  sought  to  discover  a  northwest  passage 
to  India,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  subject.  In  1578  he  made  an  ex- 
pedition which  met  with  no  success.  In  1583  he  planted  a  colony  at 
Newfoundland  which  did  not  prosper.     On  his  return  he  was  lost  at  sea. 

Gilder,  "William  Henry,  was  second  in  command  of  the  Franklin 
search  expedition  conducted  by  Lieutenant  Frederick  Schwatka,  1878- 
1880.  This  expedition  found  many  relics,  and  recovered  the  remains  of 
Lieutenant  Irving,  of  the  unfortunate  Franklin  party.  In  1881  he  accom- 
panied the  party  sent  in  search  of  De  Long  and  when  their  vessel,  the 
"Rogers,"  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  west  shore  of  Behring's  Strait, 
Gilder  carried  the  news  to  the  nearest  telegraph  station,  which  involved 
a  winter's  journey  of  2,000  miles  across  Siberia.  He  died  at  Morristown, 
N.  J.,  February  6,  1900. 

Gillmqre,  Quincy  A.  ( 1825-1888),  was  born  in  Ohio.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1849,  was  chief  of  engineers  in 
the  Port  Royal  expedition  in  1861,  superintended  the  attack  on  Fort 
Pulaski,  defeated  the  Confederates  at  Somerset  in  1862,  commanded  at 
Fort  Sumter,  Fort  Wagner  and  Morris  Island,  and  was  promoted  major- 
general  for  services  at  Charleston.  He  was  an  authority  in  engineering 
subjects. 

Gilmer,  Thomas  W.f  died  in  1844,  was  Governor  of  Virginia  from 
1840  to  1841.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Democratic  Congressman  from  1841  to 
1844.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  in  1844,  and  was 
killed  in  the  "  Princeton  "  disaster. 

Gilpin,  Henry  D.  (1801-1860),  was  U.  S.  attorney  for  Pennsylvania 
in  1832,  solicitor  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury  in  1837,  and  Attorney-General 
for  the  United  States  from  1840  to  1841,  and  was  deeply  intereste4  in 
historical  work.     He  edited  the  papers  of  James  Madison,  1840. 

Girard,  Stephen  (1750-1831),  was  born  in  France,  but  came  to 
Philadelphia  about  1776.  He  amassed  an  immense  fortune  by  commer- 
cial enterprises  and  speculation  during  financial  crises.  During  the 
War  of  181 2  he  greatly  aided  the  Government  by  a  loan  of  $5, 000,000. 
He  was  rigidly  frugal  and  inhospitable  in  private  life,  but  very  generous 
in  public  affairs,  giving  large  sums  for  public  and  charitable  purposes. 
He  founded  Girard  College  for  orphans  at  Philadelphia. 

Girty,  Simon  (i75o?-i8i5),  a  Kentucky  loyalist  who  led  the  In- 
dians in  their  depredations  during  the  Revolutionary  War  and  in  the 
War  of  1812,  committing  many  atrocious  deeds. 

Gist,  Mordecai  (1743-J792),  was  ejected  captain  of  the  first  Mary- 
Vol.  V.— 19 


290  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

land  company  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  fought  at  Camden  in  1780,  and 
gained  a  victory  over  the  British  at  Combahee  in  1782. 

Glass.  The  first  mention  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  the  United 
States  is  in  Captain  John  Smith's  "  History  of  Virginia, "  in  which  he 
speaks  of  a  glass  factory  having  been  founded  at  Jamestown  in  1615, 
and  a  second  in  1622.  The  work  was  coarse,  being  chiefly  confined  to 
bottles.  In  1754  a  successful  factory  was  established  in  Brooklyn  by 
Bamber,  a  Dutchman.  In  1779  factories  were  founded  at  Temple, 
N.  H.,  and  in  1795  the  industry  was  begun  at  Pittsburg.  By  181 3  there 
were  five  glass  factories,  valued  at  $160,000,  at  Pittsburg.  In  1840  there 
were  eighty-one  factories  in  the  States,  having  a  capital  of  $2,014,100. 
By  1870,  201  factories  flourished  in  different  places,  having  a  total  cap- 
ital of  $14,111,642.     Since  then  the  industry  has  rapidly  increased. 

Glendale,  or  Frayser's  Farm,  Va.,  a  battle  in  the  Peninsular 
campaign  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  June  30,  1863.  McClellan's 
army  had  just  emerged  from  White  Oak  Swamp,  where  had  also  been  a 
fierce  battle  with  Jackson's  troops.  Hill  and  Longstreet  fell  upon  the 
Federal  rear  and  there  was  terrific  fighting  all  the  afternoon.  McCall's 
division  of  the  Federals  fared  worst  and  that  leader  was  captured. 
Darkness  ended  this  indecisive  battle.  This  fight  is  also  called  Nelson's 
Farm  and  Charles  City  Cross-Roads. 

Gnadenhutten,  a  settlement  of  Indians,  Christianized  by  the  Mora- 
vians, made  in  1783.  It  was  situated  on  the  Muskingum  River.  For 
many  years  this  village  and  the  sister  settlements  of  Salem  and  Schon- 
brunn  were  peaceful  and  prosperous.  In  1781  Matthew  Klliott,  leading 
300  whites  and  Hurons,  appeared  at  Gnadenhiitten  and  urged  the  mis- 
sionaries and  Indians  to  depart  to  Sandusky.  They  did  so,  but  returned 
the  next  year.  Another  troop  of  soldiers,  frontiersmen  and  savages, 
under  Colonel  Williamson,  and  without  civil  or  military  authority,  ap- 
peared, and  brutally  butchered  the  entire  tribe,  destroying  their  thriv- 
ing village. 

Goebel,  William  U.,  ran  on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  1899  against 
William  S.  Taylor  for  Governor  of  Kentucky.  The  returns  showed  a 
majority  of  2,383  in  favor  of  the  latter,  but  the  claim  of  fraud  was  set 
up  and  the  contention  was  carried  before  an  election  board  that  decided 
in  favor  of  Goebel.  In  the  meantime,  however,  the  certificate  of  elec- 
tion had  been  given  to  Taylor  and  the  other  State  officers  had  likewise 
taken  their  seats.  When  the  Legislature,  which  was  largely  Democratic, 
convened,  January  30,  1900,  the  two.  governors  were  in  Frankfort  to 
establish  themselves  in  office.     Taylor,  having  the  certificate,  took  pos- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  291 

session  of  the  State  House  and  called  for  troops  to  protect  him  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  the  lawful  executive.  Fearing  that  the  Legis- 
lature, if  permitted  to  assemble,  would  declare  Goebel  Governor,  Taylor 
set  guards  before  the  Capitol,  instructed  to  allow  none  of  the  members 
to  enter.  This  was  the  situation  on  the  morning  of  January  30  when 
Goebel,  accompanied  by  Colonel  Jack  Chinn,  approached  the  State 
House.  The  two  were  near  the  fountain  when  several  shots  were  fired 
from  a  window  in  the  executive  mansion,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Capitol  by  a  narrow  passage.  One  of  the  bullets,  evidently  from  a 
Winchester  rifle,  struck  Goebel  in  the  right  shoulder  and,  ranging  down- 
ward, passed  through  the  left  lung  and  issued  from  the  left  side. 
Goebel  fell  mortally  wounded,  but  survived  until  seven  o'clock  of  the 
following  Saturday,  February  3d.  The  greatest  excitement  naturally 
ensued  and  civil  war  was  imminent,  but  cooler  counsel  prevailed. 
Taylor  offered  a  personal  reward  of  $500  for  the  apprehension  of  the 
assassin,  and  the  peace  officers  exerted  themselves  to  find  the  culprit, 
but  without  avail.  Taylor  adjourned  the  Legislature  to  meet  at  London, 
Laurel  County,  and  after  the  death  of  Goebel;  J.  C.  W.  Beckham,  the 
Democrat  Lieutenant-Governor,  who  was  now  sworn  in  as  Goebel's 
successor,  convened  the  Legislature  in  Louisville.  This  change  was 
made  necessary  by  the  passions  of  the  people,  which  were  such  that  a 
strong  force  was  necessary  to  prevent  a  clash  of  arms  between  the  op- 
posing factions.  Taylor  held  possession  of  the  Frankfort  State  House 
by  the  help  of  militia,  and  applied  to  the  Federal  Courts  (Judge  Taft) 
for  an  order  restraining  the  Democratic  leaders  from  interfering 
with  his  exercise  of  the  functions  of  the  governorship.  This  application 
was  based  upon  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  but 
the  judge  refused  the  request  and  referred  the  matter  back  to  the  State 
Courts  for  determination.  Thereupon  Taylor,  acting  as  Governor, 
recalled  the  Legislature  to  Frankfort,  where  eessions  of  the  Republican 
faction  were  thereafter  held,  while  the  Democratic  members  continued 
to  hold  their  session  in  Louisville  until  decision  of  the  Circuit  Court  was 
rendered  seating  Beckham,  from  which  appeal  was  asked  for,  but  denied. 

Goffe,  "William  (1605-1679),  regicide,  was  born  in  England.  He 
became  a  major-general  in  the  English  army,  was  one  of  the  judges  who 
sentenced  Charles  I.  to  death,  and  was  prominent  in  political  affairs 
during  the  Protectorate.  Upon  the  return  of  Charles  II.,  he  fled  to 
America  in  1660,  landing  at  Boston.  He  was  concealed  in  New  Haven 
from  1661  to  1664,  when  he  went  to  Hadley,  Mass.,  where  he  remained 
until  just  before  his  death. 

Gold.     The  first  law  affecting  the  coinage  of  gold  into  lawful  money 


293  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

was  enacted  April  2,  1792.  By  this  law  any  person  could  havp  gqlc| 
bullion  converted  into  coin  eleven  parts  pure  to  one  part  alloy.  Its 
ratio  to  silver  was  fifteen  to  one,  and  gold  coins  were  legal  tender  to 
any  amount.  In  March,  1795,  a  charge  of  four  cents  per  ounce  was 
made  for  coining  gold  bullion  below  the  standard.  Under  the  law  of 
April  21,  1800,  a  sum  was  retained  for  coining  gold  below  tfye  standard. 
January  18,  1837,  the  standard  gold  coin  was  made  nine-tenths  pure  and 
one-tenth  alloy.  February  21,  1853,  it  was  enacted  that  gold  cojns  were 
tp  be  exchanged  for  silver  coins  at  par  in  sums  not  exceeding  $100,  and 
a  charge  of  one-half  per  cent,  was  made  for  refining.  February  12,  1873, 
it  was  enacted  that  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent,  was  to  be  charged  for  coin- 
ing standard  gold.  By  the  law  of  January  14,  1875,  no  charge  was  to 
be  made  for  converting  standard  gold  bullion  into  coin. 

Gold,  Production  of.  Up  to  1830  the  amount  of  gold  produced  in 
the  United  States  was  exceedingly  small.  In  the  next  two  decades  an 
annual  average  of  $700,000  was  obtained  from  the  mines  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  raised  the  annual  product 
to  $10,000,000  in  1848,  to  $40,000,000  in  1849,  and  to  $50,000,000  in  1850. 
In  1853  it  reached  its  maximum,  $65,000,000.  In  the  decade  1861-70  it 
averaged  $47,000,000  ;  in  the  decade  1871-80,  $40,000,000  ;  in  the  decade 
1881-90,  about  $34,000,000.  In  1892-93  it  was  $33,000,000,  but  in  1899 
it  rose  to  $60,000,000. 

Gold  Reserve.  For  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  credit  of  the 
nation  and  to  protect  the  issues  of  Treasury  notes,  a  reserve  or  redemp- 
tion fund  of  $100,000,000  in  gold  was  ostensibly  maintained  by  law,  but 
the  futility  of  such  a  provision,  forming  as  it  does  an  insecure  basis  for 
a  paper  issue  of  $500,000,000,  was  demonstrated  during  Cleveland's 
second  term,  when  the  reserve  fell  below  $50,000,000,  and  niore  than 
once  has  had  to  be  restored  by  the  issuing  of  bonds.  The  revival  of 
business  and  the  large  increase  of  exports  following  McKinley's  election 
caused  a  rapid  increase  of  gold  in  the  United  States  Treasury,  until, 
in  February,  1900,  the  amount  reached  the  unprecedented  totaj  of 
$402,580,027. 

Gold  Standard  Financial  Bill,  The,  a  measure  that  became  a 
law  March  14,  1900,  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  a  redemption 
fund  of  $150,000,000,  giving  power  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to 
replenish  the  fund  by  a  sale  of  bonds  whenever  it  falls  below  $100,000,000, 
and  provides  that  all  Treasury  notes  issued  for  silver  bullion  under  the 
Sherman  law  shall  be  retired  and  replaced  by  silver  certificates.  It  also 
gives  the  Secretary  authority  to  suspend  the  issue  of  gold  certificates 


AMERICAN  H1ST0RV.  293 

and  to  coin  ahy  of  the  i8gio  bullion  intb  subsidiary  coins  up  to 
1100,000,000.  The  law  also  gives  the  Secretary  power  to  refund  $839,- 
000,000  of  outstanding  bonds  by  exchanging  for  them  2  per  cent,  bonds 
and  payment  of  the  difference  in  cash,  upon  the  following  basis  : 
105.6851  for  the  3  per  cents.,  1 11.6765  for  the  4  per  cents.,  and  iio.0751 
for  the  5  per  cents.  New  national  banks  are  permitted  to  be  chartered 
with  a  capital  not  less  than  $25,000,  and  all  national  banks  allowed  to 
issue  circulating  notes  to  the  par  value  of  the  bonds  deposited. 

Golden  Circle,  Knights  of  the,  an  organization  formed  among 
' '  Southern  sympathizers  ' '  during  the  Civil  War  to  assist  the  Confederate 
cause. 

"Golden  Hind,"  the  vessel  which  accompanied  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert's  "  Squirrel  "  in  the  colonization  expedition  of  1583.  Gilbert 
was  lost,  and  Captain  Edward  Haies  returned  with  the  "  Golden  Hind  " 
to  England  bearing  the  news. 

Goldsfcorough,  I,ouis  M.  (1805-1877),  entered  the  navy  at  the  age 
of  seven,  served  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1827,  was  promoted  commander 
in  1 84 1,  and  aided  in  the  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1847.  In  1861 
he  was  in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron,  and  planned  the 
capture  of  Roanoke  Island  in  1862.  He  retired  in  1873,  as  rear-admiral, 
having  been  longer  in  the  service  than  any  other  officer. 

Goodhue,  Benjamin  (1748-18 14),  a  Massachusetts  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1784  to  1789,  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from 
1789  to  1795,  and  a  (Federalist)  Senator  from  1796  to  1800.  He  drafted 
many  of  the  present  revenue  laws,  and  served  on  the  Committee  on 
Commerce  in  the  Senate. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  G.  (1 793-1860),  served  in  the  Massachusetts 
Senate  in  1838  and  1839,  and  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Paris  from  185 1  to 
1855.  He  published  many  juvenile  and  educational  Works,  usually 
under  the  name  of  Peter  Parley,  famous  among  which  was  a  popular 
history  of  the  United  States. 

Goodyear,  Charles  (1800-1860),  was  born  in  Connecticut.  By 
persistent  experiment  he  discovered  the  vulcanizing  process  by  which 
he  rendered  india-rubber  useful. 

Gordon,  John  B.,  born  in  1832,  was  promoted  lieutenant-general  in 
the  Confederate  service,  represented  Georgia  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  froth 
1873  to  1880,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia  in  1886. 

Gorgeana,  a  town  incorporated  in  1642  under  the  grant  of  the 
charter  of  Maine  to  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  and  others,    The  grant  was 


294  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

made  December  2,  1631,  of  24,000  acres  on  both  sides  of  the  Acomenticiu 
River.     Gorgeana  was  founded  in  1641  as  Acomenticus. 

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando  (1565-1647),  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  original  Plymouth  Company,  and  sent  out  a  number  of  unsuccessful 
expeditions  to  the  New  England  coast.  In  1620  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Council  for  New  England.  In  1622  he,  with  Mason,  obtained  a 
grant  of  Northern  New  England  ;  in  1629,  of  Western  Maine,  separately. 
Under  a  fuller  proprietary  grant  of  1639,  he  established  a  government  at 
Saco,  Acomenticus  and  Gorgeana. 

Gorman,  Arthur  P.,  born  in  1S39,  was  a  page  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  1852  to  1866,  served  in  the  Maryland  Legislature  from  1869  to 
1879,  and  has  been  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  188 1  to  1897.  He  is  one  of  the 
chief  Democratic  political  managers,  and  a  presidential  aspirant. 

Gough,  John  B.  (1817-1886),  came  to  America  from  England  in 
1829.  He  led  a  dissipated  life  until  1842,  when  he  reformed  and  devoted 
his  efforts  to  temperance  reform.  He  relied  entirely  on  moral  influences 
and  disregarded  organized  or  legislative  efforts.  He  was  famous  as  an 
orator. 

Gould,  Helen  Miller,  daughter  of  Jay  Gould,  born  in  New  York, 
June  20,  1868.  Her  fame  is  secure  as  one  of  the  noblest  of  American 
women.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Spain  she  gave  the  U.  S. 
Government  $100,000,  to  be  spent  at  the  discretion  of  the  Secretary  or 
War,  she  also  became  an  active  member  of  the  Woman's  National  War 
Relief,  gave  freely  money  and  assistance  to  the  work,  contributed 
$25,000  for  the  relief  of  sick  soldiers  at  Camp  Wikoff,  and  is  noted  for 
her  generous  benefactions  to  many  worthy  causes. 

Gould,  Jay  ( 1836-1893) ,  first  engaged  in  surveying,  but  entered  the 
brokerage  business  in  1857  and  amassed  an  immense  fortune  through 
railroad  speculations.  He  was  said  to  control  nearly  one-eighth  of  the 
railroad  mileage  in  the  United  States. 

Gourgues,  Dominique  de  (1537-1593).  a  French  soldier,  set  sail 
in  1567,  with  three  vessels  and  about  230  men,  to  punish  the  Spaniards  led 
by  Menendez,  for  killing  French  explorers  in  Florida.  He  enlisted  the 
services  of  the  Indians  and  attacked  Fort  San  Mateo  on  the  St.  John's 
River,  Florida,  completely  annihilated  the  garrison,  and  likewise  des- 
troyed the  fortifications  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Government  by  Injunction,  see  appendix,  page  483. 

Governor.  When  the  American  colonies  were  founded,  "  Governor  ' ' 
was  used  in  two  senses  in  England, — to  denote  the  commander  of  a  for- 
tified post,    like  Hull  or  Tangier,  and  to  denote  the  head  of  a  great 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  295 

tiding  corporation,  like  the  East  India  Company  or  the  Massachusetts 
Company.  The  Governor  of  an  American  colony  got  his  name  by  deri- 
vation from  both  these  sources,  probably.  When  the  Revolution 
broke  out  and  the  royal  Governors  fled,  the  new  State  Constitutions 
usually  made  provision  for  a  single  executive,  called  the  Governor.  At 
first  he  was  chosen  by  the  Legislatures  in  most  States  south  of  New 
York,  but  now  by  the  people.  In  the  colonial  period  the  Governors  of 
Rhode  Island,  of  Connecticut,  and  of  Massachusetts,  down  to  1691,  were 
chosen  by  the  people  ;  those  of  proprietary  colonies  by  the  proprietors  ; 
those  of  royal  colonies  by  the  crown. 

Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  called  Nutten  Island  by  its  original 
settlers,  the  Dutch,  received  its  present  name  from  having  been  the 
property  of  Governor  Wouter  van  Twiller.  It  was  fortified  and  occu- 
pied by  the  colonial  troops  during  the  Revolution. 

Graduation  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Congress  in  1854  to  cheapen,  for 
the  benefit  of  actual  settlers  and  for  adjoining  farms,  the  price  of  lands 
which  had  long  been  on  the  market. 

Grady,  Henry  W.  (1S51-1889),  journalist  and  orator,  became  as- 
sociated with  the  Atlanta  Constitution  in  1880.  A  distinguished  orator, 
he  made  himself  the  spokesman  of  the  "  New  South,"  and  delivered  a 
famous  speech  on  "The  New  South"  in  1886,  and  one  upon  "The 
Future  of  the  Negro  "  in  1889. 

Grafton,  Augustus  Henry  Fitsroy,  Duke  of  (1736-1811),  Eng- 
lish statesman,  opposed  Townsend's  policy  of  taxing  the  American 
colonies  in  1766.  He  sought  to  prevent  the  war  with  the  colonies,  and 
opposed  the  measures  of  Lord  North. 

Graham,  George  (i772?-i83o),  commanded  in  the  War  of  1812, 
was  acting  Secretary  of  War  from  1815  to  1817,  and  was  U.  S.  Land 
Commissioner  from  1823  to  1830. 

Graham,  William  A.  (1804-1875),  represented  North  Carolina  in 
the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1840  to  1843,  was  Governor  of  the  State  from 
1845  to  1849,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1850  to 
1853,  and  Whig  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1852. 

Granby  Token,  a  private  or  unauthorized  coinage  issued  in  Con- 
necticut in  1737  by  John  Higley,  of  Granby.  It  was  made  of  copper. 
Obverse,  a  deer  and  legend,  Value  Me  as  You  Please  ;  Roman  numerals 
III.  and  crescent.  Reverse,  three  hammers  upon  a  triangular  field, 
each  bearing  a  crown.     Legend  :  I  Am  Good  Copper. 

Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  organized  during  the  winter  of 


296  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

1865-66  at  Springfield,  111.,  chiefly  through  the  activity  of  Dr.  B.  F. 
Stephenson,  late  surgeon  of  the  Fourteenth  Illinois  Infantry.  The  first 
post  was  established  at  Decatur,  111.,  in  1866.  The  ritual  is  secret.  All 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  navy  and  marine  corps  between 
April  12,  i86i,  and  April  9,  1865,  are  eligible  for  membership  provided 
they  have  had  an  honorable  discharge.  The  membership,  in  1893, 
was  407,781.  National  conventions  have  been  held  each  year.  The 
first  commander-in-chief  was  Stephen  A.  Hurlbut,  of  Illinois.  Grand 
army  posts  have  been  established  in  nearly  every  city  in  the  North  and 
West. 

Grand  Gtiif,  Miss.,  assaulted,  during  Grant's  expedition  along  the 
Mississippi,  by  that  general  and  Admiral  Porter,  who  commanded  eight 
Federal  gunboats,  April  29,  1863.  Wade  held  the  place  with  a  small 
Confederate  force.  The  position  Was  bombarded  for  some  hours  with- 
out avail. 

Granger,  JFrancis  (1792-1868),  son  of  Gideon,  a  New  York  Assem- 
blyman from  1826  to  1831,  was  National  Republican  candidate  for  Vice- 
President  in  1836,  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1835  to  1837  and  from  1839 
to  1843,  and  was  Whig  Postmaster-General  in  1841. 

Granger,  Gideon  (1767-1822),  served  in  the  Connecticut  Legisla- 
ture, and  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  school  fund.  He  was  Post- 
master-General of  the  United  States  from  1801  to  1814  in  the  Cabinets 
of  Jefferson  and  Madison,  and  Was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Senate 
from  1819  to  1821  where  he  advocated  an  extensive  system  of  internal 
improvements. 

Granger,  Gordon  (1 821- 1876),  active  in  the  Mexican  War  at  Vera 
Cruz,  Chapultepec  and  City  of  Mexico,  fought  on  the  Federal  side 
during  the  Civil  War  at  Island  No.  10,  Chattanooga,  Missionary  Ridge 
and  Mobile,  and  was  brevetted  major-general. 

Granger,  Robert  S.,  general,  born  in  1816,  promoted  captain  in 
the  Mexican  War,  had  commands  in  the  Civil  War  at  Lebanon,  Law- 
renceburg,  in  Nashville  and  Middle  Tennessee  in  1863,  and  Alabama  in 
1864.     He  retired  in  1873.     Die(I  l894- 

Grangers.  The  popular  name  for  the  "  Patrons  of  Husbandry,"  a 
secret  association  devoted  to  the  promotion  of  agricultural  interests,  or- 
ganized in  Washington,  December  4,  1867.  By  the  end  of  1875  it  num- 
bered 1,500,000  members  in  every  section  of  the  United  States.  Its 
organization  was  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Freemasons,  but  both 
men  and  women  were  admitted  to  membership.    Though  fundamen- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  297 

tally  non-political,  it  exerted  considerable  political  influence  in  its  con- 
tests with  railroad  corporations  for  cheaper  rates. 

Grant,  James  (1720-1806),  met  with  a  severe  defeat  in  command  of 
an  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne  in  1758.  He  commanded  two  brig- 
ades of  British  troops  at  Long  Island,  and  was  in  command  of  New 
Jersey  during  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  He  served  as  a 
major-general  in  the  battles  of  Braiidywme  and  Germantown  in  1777, 
and  defeated  Lee  at  Monmouth  in  1778. 

Grant,  "Ulysses  S.  (1822-1885),  the  greatest  Federal  general  in  the 
Civil  War,  was  born  at  Point  Pleasant,  O.,  and  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1843.  He  was  commissioned  a  lieutenant,  fought  in  the 
battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  was  brevetted  captain 
in  1847  for  conduct  at  Chapultepec.  In  1854  he  resigned  his  commission 
and  engaged  in  business  until  1861.  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
he  was  given  command  of  the  forces  at  Cairo,  111.,  and  in  1861  seized 
Paducah.  In  i862  he  gained  possession  of  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  DOnel- 
son,  strongly'  contested  points,  the  surrender  of  which  was  the  first 
brilliant  victory  of  the  national  arms.  For  this  success  he  was  commis- 
sioned major-general.  In  conjunction  with  the  forces  of  General  Buell 
he  defeated  the  Confederates  at  Pittsburg  Landing  and  soon  afterward 
was  assigned  to  command  in  Tennessee.  He  defeated  General  Price 
(1863)  and  succeeded  in  taking  Vicksburg  from  Pendleton  after  repeated 
attacks.  Having  thus  secured  the  Mississippi,  he  was  appointed  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army  and  placed  in  command  of  the  Western 
army.  He  gained  brilliant  victories  about  Chattanooga  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Lincoln  to  the  newly  revived  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  Leaving  Sherman  to  conduct  the  chief  Western  army  from 
Tennessee  to  the  sea,  he  assumed  control  of  the  movements  against  the 
Confederates  defending  Richmond,  commanded  by  General  Lee.  With 
dogged  persistence  and  at  great  sacrifice  of  life  he  fought  the  battles  of 
the  Wilderness,  Spbttsylvania  and  Cold  Harbor,  destroying  the  railroads 
which  brought  supplies  to  the  Confederates,  taking  Petersburg  in  1865 
and  compelling  the  entire  command  to  surrender  on  April  9  at  Appom- 
attox Court  House,  thereby  ending  the  war.  In  the  period  of  recon- 
struction which  followed  he  played  a  most  honorable  part,  often  being 
placed  in  difficult  positions  by  the  animosity  between  President  Johnson 
and  Congress.  In  1868  he  was  unanimously  nominated  for  President 
by  the  Republicans,  was  elected  and  served  two  terms,  from  1868  to 
1876.  During  his  administration  occurred  the  passage  of  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment,  the  funding  of  the  national  debt,  civil  service  reform  was 
inaugurated,   the  Treaty  of  Washington  was  negotiated  with   Great 


298  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Britain,  and  specie  payment  was  resumed  in  1875.  His  administration 
as  President  was  not  wholly  successful,  some  of  his  advisers  proving 
most  unworthy.  He  possessed  an  unassuming  manner,  yet  was  self- 
reliant  and  prompt  in  his  decisions,  calm  and  patient  in  all  circum- 
stances, and  won  the  admiration  of  all  by  his  moral  and  physical  cour- 
age.    He  published  "Personal  Memoirs." 

Grasse,  Francois  J.  P.,  Count  de  (1723-1788),  born  in  France, 
was  appointed  commander  of  a  French  fleet  of  twenty-nine  vessels  and 
3,000  men  to  aid  the  American  colonists  against  Great  Britain  in  1781. 
He  aided  in  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  blockading  the  York  and  James 
Rivers,  and  sent  troops  to  aid  in  the  decisive  engagement  by  which 
Cornwallis  was  compelled  to  surrender. 

Gray,  Asa  (1810-1888),  born  in  New  York,  was  recognized  both  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe  as  one  of  the  most  eminent  botanists  of  his 
time.     He  published  a  large  number  of  valuable  botanical  works. 

Gray,  Elisha,  born  in  1835,  is  a  successful  inventor  of  various  elec- 
trical appliances,  chiefly  for  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  among  them 
being  his  speaking  telephone  and  multiplex  telegraph. 

Gray,  George,  born  in  1840,  Attorney -General  of  Delaware  from 

1879  to  1885,  delegate  to  the  National  Democratic  Conventions  of  1876, 

1880  and  1884,  U.  S.  Senator  from  1885  to  1899.  Peace  Commissioner  in 
1898,  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge,  1899. 

Gray,  Robert  (1755-1806),  born  in  Rhode  Island,  traded  with  the 
Indians  on  the  northwest  coast,  and  returned  in  1790  via  China,  being 
the  first  to  carry  the  American  flag  around  the  world.  He  sailed  into 
the  Columbia  River  in  1792,  from  which  arose  the  American  claim  to 
Oregon. 

"Great  Awakening,"  a  religious  revival  between  1734  and  1744, 
through  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  induced  by  the  eloquence  of 
Jonathan  Edwards  and  George  Whitefield.  Edwards  had  a  parish  at 
Northampton,  Whitefield  was  an  Englishman.  Their  preaching  aroused 
the  greatest  religious  enthusiasm,  and  made  hundreds  of  converts.  The 
awakening  was  looked  upon  with  disfavor  in  England. 

Great  Bridge,  Va.,  an  engagement  of  the  Revolution,  occurring 
December  9,  1775,  near  the  Dismal  Swamp,  between  Lord  Dunmore,  com- 
manding a  band  of  British  and  Tories,  and  Colonel  Woodford,  leading 
300  colonial  soldiers.  Dunmore  attacked  Woodford's  camp  and  was 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  100  men,  Woodford  sustaining  no  loss. 

Great  Britain.     The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  which  ended  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


;99 


Revolutionary  War  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  was 
concluded  September  3,  1783.  Failure  to  fulfill  some  of  the  provisions 
of  this  treaty — notably  the  evacuation  of  the  northern  frontier  posts — 
led  to  the  negotiation  of  the  Jay  Treaty.  This  concession  (of  evacua- 
tion) with  some  doubtful  commercial  privileges  was  almost  the  only 
advantage  secured  by  the  new  treaty,  which  gave  more  than  it  gained, 
and  proved  very  unpopular,  though  it  was  ratified.  British  orders-in- 
council,  damaging  to  American  commerce,  and  the  arbitrary  impress- 
ment of  American  seamen,  resulted  in  the  War  of  1812-15  (see  next  art.), 
which  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  peace  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Ghent, 
which  provided  for  commissions  to  settle  the  northern  boundary.  A 
commercial  convention  was  concluded  in  1815.  The  convention  of  1818 
reaffirmed  the  right  of  the  United  States  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  north- 
eastern fisheries  subject  to  certain  renunciations.  It  referred  to  arbitra- 
tion the  question  of  the  return  of  the  slaves  captured  during  the  War  of 
1812,  which  was  finally  decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States,  and  an 
indemnity  paid.  It  attempted  to  settle  the  northwest  boundary.  The 
Ashburton  Treaty  of  1842  determined  the  long-disputed  northeast 
boundary  and  provided  for  the  mutual  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 
The  acquisition  of  California  and  the  question  of  its  approaches  across 
the  Isthmus  led  to  new  difficulties  with  Great  Britain.  The  Clayton- 
Bulwer  Treaty  of  1850  was  concluded  to  settle  all  difficulties  as  to 
Central  American  rights,  but  a  difficulty  of  interpretation  led  to  the 
conclusion  of  the  Dallas-Clarendon  Treaty  of  1854,  which  failed  of  rati- 
fication, and  the  matter  was  not  satisfactorily  adjusted  for  several  years. 
In  1853  a  claims  convention  was  concluded,  a  reciprocity  treaty  in  1854 
and  a  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  in  1862 — afterward 
modified.  A  naturalization  convention  was  concluded  in  1870.  A 
treaty  (Treaty  of  Washington)  was  concluded  May  8,  1871.  to  settle 
questions  arising  from  the  American  Civil  War.  It  provided  for  a  com- 
mission of  arbitration  which  awarded  $15,500,000  to  the  United  States, 
and  settled  important  questions  of  international  law.  This  treaty  fur- 
ther adjusted  differences  relating  to  the  northeastern  fisheries,  and 
$5,500,000  were  awarded  to  Great  Britain.  Also  the  northwestern 
boundary  dispute  (or  San  Juan  question)  was  referred  to  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  who  decided  in  favor  of  the  United  States.  An  extradi- 
tion treaty  was  concluded  in  1890.  The  latest  difficulty  between  the  two  . 
nations  has  been  the  Behring  Sea  dispute.  This  arose  over  the  right  to 
take  seals  in  certain  waters  claimed  by  the  United-  States  as  under  its 
exclusive  jurisdiction.  A  treaty  of  arbitration  was  signed  February  29, 
1892,  which  provided  for  a  tribunal  of  arbitration.  It  met  in  Paris,  and 
on  August  15,  1893,  signed  an  agreement  which  denies  exclusive  Amer- 


3oo  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ican  jurisdiction  beyond  the  three-mile  limit,  and  grants  damages  for 
seizures  by  the  United  States,  but  establishes  protective  regulations 
binding  upon  both  nations.  In  18^2  a  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded 
respecting  the  British  West  Indies. 

Great  Bf  itaih,  Second  War  with.  The  war  between  England 
and  France,  resumed  in  1803,  resulted  iii  innumerable  aggressions  upon 
the  commerce  of  neutrals,  the  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees  and  the  orders- 
in-Council,  issued  by  the  two  combatants  in  the  effort  to  destroy  each 
other's  resources,  subjected  to  capture  on  the  one  hand  all  vessels  trading 
with  England,  and  on  the  other  hand  all  vessels  trading  with  France  dr 
regions  subject  to  France — practically  nearly  the  Whole  continent  6f 
Europe.  England,  moreover,  insisted  on  the  impressment  of  seamen 
and  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  search.  The  Non-Importation  Act,  the 
embargo  and  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  brought  neither  belligerent  to 
terms,  and  negotiations  with  England  failed  to  check  British  aggres- 
sions. The  result  was  the  growth,  especially  in  the  West,  of  a  resolute 
war  party,  led  by  Clay,  Calhoun,  Crawford,  Grundy,  Cheves,  Lowndes 
and  others,  who  succeeded  in  forcing  President  Madison's  hand,  and  in 
JuU'e,  181 2,  brought  on  a  declaration  of  war  with  England.  The  mili- 
tary and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  were  exceedidgly  small  in 
comparison  with  those  of  Great  Britain,  the  country  disunited  and  the 
executive  weak.  The  theater  of  land  operations  was  at  first  the  Cana- 
dian frontier.  In  181 2  the  Americans  lost  Detroit  and  Chicago,  and 
were  checked  in  attempts  to  invade  Canada  by  Way  of  Niagara.  In  1813 
Perry's  victory  dn  Lake  Erie  secured  that  lake  and  Detroit,  but  in  the 
regions  of  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence  an  American  occupation  of 
Upper  Canada  proved  temporary,  and  no  substantial  gains  were  made. 
On  the  sea  the  little  American  navy  won  brilliant  and  eUcouraging  vic- 
tories in  1812.  In  1813  it  was  on  the  whole  unsuccessful,  but  privateers, 
to  the  end  of  the  war,  inflicted  enornious  damage  on  British  shipping. 
In  1814  the  army  on  the  Canadian  frontier,  better  commanded  than 
heretofore,  won  victories  at  Luhdy's  Lane  and  PlattsbUrg.  But  the  ab- 
dication of  Napoleon  left  England  free  to  employ  more  troops  in  Amer- 
ica. A  force  which  landed  in  Chesapeake  Bay  captured  Washington, 
but  was  repulsed  from  Baltimore.  Meanwhile  New  England  gave  Vio- 
lent expression  to  its  dissatisfaction  with  the  war,  especially  through  the 
Hartford  Convention.  As  neither  nation  was  making  substantial  gain's, 
negotiations  for  peace  were  begun,  and  finally  peace  was  concluded  by 
the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (1814).  The  treaty  said  nothing  of  either  the 
rights  of  neutrals  or  the  impressment  of  seamen.  Yet  the  effect  of  the 
War  had  been  to  increase  the  confidence  of  the  Americans  and  their 
national  feeling,  and  to  withdraw  the  country's  politics  permanently 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  301 

from  dependenpe  on  those  of  Europe.  Before  the  news  of  peace  arrived, 
Jackson  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  New  Orleans  over  a  formidable  Brit- 
ish force  which  had  been  sent  to  occupy  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
(1815). 

Great  Meadows.  Toward  the  end  of  May,  1754,  Washington  en- 
camped with  150  men  on  a  meadow  near  the  Youghiogeny  River  be- 
tween the  Alleghany  and  Laurel  Ridges.  His  instructions  were  to  ad- 
vance upon  Fort  Duquesne,  which  had  been  seized  by  the  French  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year.  When  at  Great  Meadows  he  learned  that  a 
body  of  French  were  in  his  vicinity.  Taking  a  portion  of  his  force  and 
an  Indian  guide  he  surprised  the  French,  who  were  hidden  in  a  hollow 
in  the  forest,  and  at  once  opened  fire.  Several,  among  whom  was  their 
commander  Jumonville,  were  killed,  and  over  twenty  taken  prisoners. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  French  and  Indian  W^ar,  and  indeed  was 
the  first  engagement  of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

Greece.  The  United  States  sympathized  with  the  efforts  of  the  Greeks 
to  throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  but  early  attempts  at  governmental 
action  in  their  favor  were  frustrated.  A  commercial  treaty  was  con- 
cluded in  1837. 

Greeley,  Horace  (1811-1872),  was  born  in  New  Hampshire.  In 
1833  he  edited  the  Evening  Post,  the  first  daily  penny  paper  ever  issued, 
and  in  1834  founded  the  New  Yorker.  He  was  editorially  connected 
with  tfie  Jeffersonian  and  the  Log  Cabin,  campaign  journals  pf  con- 
siderable popularity,  and  in  1841  issued  the  first  number  of  the  Tribune, 
which  he  continued  to  edit  until  his  death.  It  was  at  first  Whig,  then 
Anti-Slavery  Whig,  then  Republican,  employed  the  most  eminent  nieu 
of  the  day  on  its  staff,  proclaimed  the  most  popular  and  radical  views, 
and  was  the  most  influential  paper  in  America.  From  1848  to  1849  he 
represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S.  Congress,  where  he  redressed  abuses 
of  the  mileage  system.  He  earnestly  advocated  the  abolition  of  slavery 
during  the  war,  and  made  most  powerful  appeals  to  the  administration 
through  the  columns  of  his  paper.  During  the  period  of  reconstruction 
he  advocated  universal  amnesty  and  impartial  suffrage,  and  became  one 
of  the  bondsmen  of  Jefferson  Davis  in  1867.  In  1872  he  was  Presiden- 
tial candidate  for  the  Liberal  Republican  and  Democratic  parties,  but 
was  defeated  by  General  Grant.  Eccentric  in  habit  and  in  thought, 
frank  and  open-minded,  firm  in  his  convictions,  ever  mindful  of  the 
welfare  of  society,  he  was  called  by  John  G.  Whittier  "  the  later 
Franklin." 

Greely,  AdolpkUS  W.>  born  in  Maine  in  1844,  was  brevetted  major 


3o2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

for  services  in  the  Civil  War,  and  soon  afterward  entered  the  Signal 
Service.  In  1881  he  commanded  an  expedition  of  twenty-five  men, 
which  reached  a  point  farther  north  than  had  ever  before  been  at- 
tained. When  rescued  in  1884,  only  seven  men  had  survived.  He  was 
made  chief  of  the  Signal  Service  in  1887. 

Green  Briar  Creek,  Va.,  an  encampment  of  Confederate  forces 
under  Lee.  Reynolds,  the  Federal  commander  in  that  quarter,  left  his 
camp  at  Elkwater,  October  2,  1861,  with  5,000  men  and  a  large  artillery 
force  and  advanced  against  the  Confederates.  Kimball  attacked  the 
Confederates'  front  and  right,  while  Milroy  cleared  the  Green  Briar 
bridge.  The  fighting  continued  fiercely  for  some  time,  but  there  was 
no  decisive  victory,  for  Reynolds,  having  gained  the  bridge,  sounded 
the  recall. 

Green  Mountain  Boys,  a  band  of  Vermont  mountaineers  who,  led 
by  Ethan  Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold,  captured  Fort  Ticonderoga  May 
10,  1776,  securing  fifty  British  prisoners  and  200  cannon.  They  ren- 
dered effective  sendee  throughout  the  Revolution. 

Green  Springs,  Va.  On  the  6th  of  July,  1781,  General  Anthony 
Wayne,  leading  Lafayette's  advance,  came  suddenly  upon  a  whole 
division  of  the  British  army  at  Green  Springs,  on  the  James.  Per- 
ceiving the  peril  which  his  incaution  had  brought  upon  him,  he  made 
such  an  audacious  attack  that  Cornwallis  was  led  to  believe  he  was  sur- 
prised by  a  force  larger  than  his  own.  Wayne  was  able  to  extricate 
himself  after  inflicting  considerable  loss  on  the  British. 

Greenback  Party,  organized  in  a  Greenback  Convention  at  India- 
napolis, November  25,  1874,  which  assembled  to  adopt  resolutions  op- 
posing the  specie  resumption  bill  proposed  at  that  time  in  Congress  and 
passed  January  14,  1875.  The  Greenback  party  platform  advocated  the 
withdrawal  of  all  national  and  State  bank  currency,  and  the  tubstitu- 
tion  therefor  of  paper  currency  issued  by  the  Government,  and  that 
coin  should  only  be  used  in  payment  of  interest  on  the  national  debt. 
The  Greenback  Presidential  candidate  in  1876,  Peter  Cooper,  of  New 
York,  received  81,740  votes,  chiefly  from  the  Western  States. 

Greenback  I,abor  Party,  an  outgrowth  of  the  Greenback  party, 
formed  in  Ohio  in  1875.  In  1878  a  union  of  the  Labor  Reform  and  the 
remnants  of  the  old  Greenback  party  was  effected  and  was  made  na- 
tional by  the  Convention  of  February  22  of  that  year,  at  Toledo,  O. 
The  platform  adopted  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Greenback  party.  It 
advocated  the  withdrawal  of  currency  from  all  national  and  State  banks 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  303 

and  corporations,  a  paper  currency  issued  by  the  Government,  and  that 
coin  should  only  be  paid  for  interest  on  the  national  debt  when  so  spec- 
ified. They  also  demanded  an  eight-hour  law,  the  prohibition  of 
Chinese  immigration,  of  land  grants  to  railroads  and  of  special  grants 
to  corporations  and  bondholders.  In  1878  they  elected  fourteen  Con- 
gressmen. Their  national  convention  was  held  at  Chicago,  June  9, 
1880,  James  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  and  B.  J.  Chambers,  of  Texas,  being 
the  Presidential  nominees.  Their  popular  vote  reached  308,578.  In 
1884  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the  party  was  B.  F.  Butler,  who  re- 
ceived 175,370  votes.     In  1887  the  Union  Labor  party  was  organized. 

Greenbacks,  the  popular  name  for  the  legal-tender  Treasury  notes 
which  the  U.  S.  Government  issued  during  the  war.  Although  the 
right  of  the  government  to  issue  "  bills  of  credit,"  legal-tender  notes, 
was  disputed  by  many,  the  necessities  of  the  Government  caused  the 
passage  of  an  act  of  that  effect  on  February  25,  1862.  This  authorized 
the  issue  of  $150,000,000  of  such  notes.  Acts  authorizing  further  issues 
of  the  same  amount  were  passed  on  June  11,  1862,  and  March  3,  1863. 
The  legal-tender  notes  rapidly  depreciated,  the  price  of  gold  averaging 
220  throughout  1864,  and  even  on  one  day  rising  to  285.  By  act  of  1866 
the  total  amount  outstanding  was  reduced  to  $356,000,000  within  two 
years.     Since  1878  it  has  been  $346,681,016. 

Greene,  Christopher  (1737-1781),  served  in  the  Rhode  Island 
Legislature  from  1772  to  1774,  was  appointed  commander  in  Arnold's 
expedition  to  Quebec  and  in  1777  made  a  brilliant  defense  of  Fort 
Mercer  against  the  Hessians. 

Greene,  Nathanael  (1742-1786),  general,  born  in  Warwick,  R.  I., 
served  in  the  Rhode  Island  Assembly  in  1770.  He  joined  a  military 
company  in  1774  and  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  in  1775.  He 
was  active  in  the  engagement  at  Dorchester  Heights,  and  was  made 
major-general  in  1776.  He  fought  at  Trenton  and  at  Princeton  and 
saved  the  American  forces  from  defeat  at  Brandywine  by  a  rapid 
march  and  skillful  management.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at 
Germantown,  skillfully  covering  the  retreat,  and  in  1778  was  appointed 
quartermaster-general  while  retaining  his  rank  in  the  field.  He  pre- 
sided at  the  trial  of  Major  Andre\  In  1780  he  succeeded  Gates  in  com- 
mand of  the  Southern  forces.  One  of  his  detachments,  under  General 
Morgan,  having  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Cowpens,  Greene  joined 
him  with  reinforcements  and  attacked  Cornwallis  at  Guilford  Court 
House.  He  then  began  a  brilliant  campaign  in  South  Carolina,  engag- 
ing Lord  Rawdon  at  Camden,  capturing  Forts  Watson,  Motte  and 
Granby,  regaining  Orangeburg,  Augusta  and  Fort  Ninety-six,  and  win- 


304  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ning  a  decisive  victory  at  Kutaw  Springs.  Soon  afterward  a  detachment 
under  General  Wayne  took  possession  of  Savannah  and  Greene  occupied 
Charleston.  He  disbanded  his  troops  in  1783.  By  his  skill  in  military 
maneuvers  he  proved  himself  one  of  the  most  brilliant  generals  of  that 
period,  second  only  to  Washington,  among  those  of  the  Revolution. 

Greenough,  Horatio  (1805-1852),  designed  a  model  from  which 
Bunker  Hill  Monument  was  made  ;  constructed  the  "  Rescue,"  and  a 
statue  of  Washington,  and  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Ameri- 
can sculptors. 

Grenville,  George  (1712-1770),  became  a  member  of  the  English 
Parliament  in  1741,  was  a  lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1744,  a  lord  of  the 
Treasury  in  1747,  Treasurer  of  the  Navy  and  privy  councilor  in  1754, 
leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1761,  Secretary  of  State  and  first 
lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1762,  and  was  first  lord  of  the  Treasury  (Prime 
Minister)  and  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  from  1763  to  1765.  In  1765 
he  secured  the  passage  of  the  act  imposing  stamp  duties  on  America, 
and  strenuously  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1766.  He  was 
an  able  statesman,  but  possessed  a  very  imperious  nature. 

Grenville,  Sir  Richard  (1540-1591),  an  English  navigator,  set 
out  with  seven  vessels  and  108  colonists  for  Carolina  on  a  colonizing 
expedition  for  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1585.  He  landed  the  colonists  at 
Roanoke  Island,  but  they  soon  afterward  returned  to  England  on 
account  of  troubles  with  the  Indians.  In  1586  he  renewed  the  attempt. 
In  1591,  with  only  one  ship,  he  attacked  a  Spanish  fleet  of  fifty  vessels 
and  sunk  four  of  them,  but  was  mortally  wrounded. 

Grenville  Act,  so  called  after  tlie  British  Minister,  George  Gren- 
ville ;  an  act  extending  the  navigation  acts,  placing  imposts  on  foreign 
molasses,  an  increased  duty  on  sugar,  regulating  English  manufactures, 
and  prohibiting  trade  between  America  and  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon, 
two  small  French  islands  off  Newfoundland. 

Gresham,  "Walter  Q.,  born  in  1832,  was  a  member  of  the  Indiana 
Legislature  from  i860  to  1861,  served  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
promoted  major-general  in  1865.  He  was  U.  S.  District  Judge  in 
Indiana  from  1869  to  1883,  when  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-General 
in  Arthur's  Cabinet,  and  in  1884  was  for  a  short  time  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  From  1884  to  1893  he  was  a  Judge  of  the  U.  S.  Circuit 
Court.  In  1893  he  became  Secretary  of  State  in  Mr.  Cleveland's  Cab- 
inet, though  till  1892  a  Republican.     D.  1895. 

Grey,  Charles  (1729-1807),  major-general,  accompanied  Howe  from 


AMERICAN  HISTORV.  305 

England  in  1775,  surprised  and  defeated  General  Wayne's  force  near 
the  Schuylkill  on  September  20,  1777,  had  a  command  at  Germantown 
and  Tappan,  and  destroyed  the  shipping  and  stores  at  New  Bedford 
in  1778. 

Greytown,  a  town  on  the  Mosquito  Coast  of  Nicaragua,  bombarded 
and  destroyed  in  1854  by  the  U.  S.  ship  "  Cyane."  A  negro  had  been 
shot  by  a  steamship  captain  in  May,  and  the  mayor  of  Greytown  ordered 
the  captain's  arrest.  The  passengers  resisted,  among  them  Borland,  the 
U.  S.  Minister.  The  next  day  Borland  was  assaulted  on  the  street.  In 
July  the  "Cyane"  was  dispatched  to  the  town.  Commander  Hollins 
sent  to  the  mayor  demanding  immediate  payment  of  the  extortionate 
demands  of  a  transit  company,  with  which  the  town  authorities  had 
quarreled.  This  was  refused.  Hollins  opened  fire  and  destroyed  the 
town. 

Grier8<m,  Benjamin  H.,  born  in  1826,  conducted  a  successful 
cavalry  raid  from  La  Grange  to  Baton  Rouge  in  1863,  and  was  success- 
ively promoted  for  dashing  cavalry  exploits  until  appointed  a  major- 
general  of  the  U.  S.  army  in  1866. 

Griffin,  Charles  (1826-1867),  fought  at  Bull  Run,  had  commands  at 
Malvern  Hill,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg  and  Gettysburg,  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  Grant's  Peninsular  campaign,  and  was  made  major-general 
in  the  U.  S.  army  in  1865. 

Griffin,  Simon  G.,  general,  born  in  1824,  in  1862  fought  at  Camden, 
Antietam  and  Fredericksburg,  and  assisted  in  taking  Vicksburg.  He 
fought  also  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Petersburg,  and  aided 
in  the  defeat  of  General  L,ee  at  Appomattox. 

Grimes,  James  W.  (1816-1872),  Governor  of  Iowa  from  1854  to 
1858,  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1859  to  1871,  and  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Naval  Affairs  from  1864  to  187 1.  He  was  one  of  the  Repub- 
licans who  voted  "  Not  guilty  "  at  President  Johnson's  trial. 

Grinnell,  Henry  (1800-1874),  a  successful  merchant,  devoted  the 
iater  years  of  his  life  to  the  extension  of  geographical  knowledge,  and 
sent  out  two  expeditions  to  the  polar  seas. 

Griswold,  Fort,  Capture  of,  September  6,  1781.  In  view  of  the 
siege  of  Cornwallis  in  Yorktown,  Clinton  attempted  a  diversion  upon 
Connecticut.  Benedict  Arnold  commanded.  The  only  spirited  resist- 
ance was  offered  by  the  garrison  of  Fort  Griswold,  157  in  number. 
After  losing  192  of  his  600  regulars  Arnold  carried  the  fort.  No  quarter 
Vol.  V.— 20 


3o6  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

was  given.     Only  twenty-six  escaped.     New  London  was  laid  in  ashes, 
and  before  sunset  the  enemy  returned  up  the  Sound. 

Groesbeck,  William  S.,  born  in  1815,  represented  Ohio  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  from  1857  to  1859,  was  a  State  Senator  in  1862  and  of 
counsel  for  President  Johnson  in  the  impeachment  trial.     Died  in  1897. 

Gros  Ventres,  a  name  applied  to  two  Indian  tribes  of  different 
origin  :  the  Gros  Ventres  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Gros  Ventres  of  the 
prairie.  The  latter  tribe,  after  wandering  east  and  joining  various  tribes 
temporarily,  finally  settled  about  1824  near  Milk  River  with  the  Black- 
feet.  Treaties  were  made  with  them  in  1851,  1853  and  1865,  and  the 
Indians  have  since  continued  friendly.  They  have  suffered  consider- 
ably from  hostilities  with  other  tribes.  They  now  occupy  a  reservation 
in  Montana. 

Grover,  Cuvier  (1829-1885),  a  lieutenant-colonel  at  Williamsburg 
and  Fair  Oaks,  commanded  a  division  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign 
and  was  brevetted  major-general  for  services  at  Fisher's  Hill  in  1864. 

Grundy,  Felix  (1777-1840),  born  in  Virginia,  was  a  member  of  the 
Kentucky  Constitutional  Convention  of  1799,  and  a  member  of  the 
State  House  of  Representatives  from  1800  to  1806.  He  represented 
Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  181 1  to  1814,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Tennessee  House  of  Representatives  from  i8i5toi8i9.  He  was 
a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1820  to  1838,  and  was  Attorney-General  in  Van 
Buren's  Cabinet  from  1838  to  1839,  when  he  again  became  a  U.  S.  Sen- 
ator and  served  until  his  death. 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Treaty  of,  was  negotiated  with  Mexico  by 
Nicholas  P.  Trist  for  the  United  States  in  1848,  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
Mexican  War.  By  this  treaty  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States  the 
territory  of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California,  and  agreed  upon 
the  Rio  Grande  River  as  the  boundary  between  herself  and  Texas.  The 
United  States  agreed  to  pay  Mexico  $15,000,000  and  to  assume  all  claims 
of  its  citizens  against  Mexico  arising  before  the  treaty.  It  reserved  to 
Mexicans  in  the  ceded  territory  the  option  to  remove  or  remain,  and 
assured  protection  of  their  rights  of  property. 

Guam,  the  largest  island  of  the  Ladrones  Archipelago,  was  ceded  by 
Spain  to  the  United  States  under  Article  II.  of  the  Peace  Treaty  con- 
cluded at  Paris,  December  10,  1898.  It  is  distant  from  San  Francisco 
5,200  miles  and  from  Manila  900  miles.  The  island  is  100  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, has  many  fine  harbors,  is  thickly  wooded,  generally  fertile, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  9,000. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  307 

Guanica,  a  point  on  the  south  coast  of  Porto  Rico,  where  General 
Miles  landed  his  army  of  invasion,  12,000  strong,  July  25,  1898. 

Guatemala.  One  treaty  has  been  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Guatemala — a  treaty  of  peace,  amity,  commerce  and  navi- 
gation, concluded  March  3,  1849.  Requisite  notice  having  been  given, 
this  treaty  ceased  to  operate  November  4,  1874.  A  reciprocity  treaty 
was  concluded  in  1802. 

Guess,  George,  or  Sequoyah  (1770-1843),  an  Indian  half-breed 
who  devised  the  alphabet  used  by  the  Cherokees.  It  consists  of  eighty- 
five  characters,  mostly  borrowed  from  the  English,  each  representing  a 
single  sound. 

Guilford  Court  House,  Battle  of,  March  15,  1781.  After  the 
battle  of  Cowpens  Morgan  turned  north  and  Cornwallis  pursued. 
Greene  resolved  to  crush  Cornwallis,  thus  separated  from  his  base  of  sup- 
plies. In  person  he  joined  Morgan  in  the  Catawba  Valley,  and  finally  his 
main  force  effected  a  conjunction  with  Morgan  at  Guilford  Court  House, 
N.  C.  Cornwallis  was  anxious  for  an  engagement,  but  Greene  crossed 
into  Virginia,  hoping  to  get  reinforcements.  Not  succeeding,  and  fear- 
ing that  the  people  of  North  Carolina  might  think  their  cause  deserted, 
he  marched  south  again.  By  a  number  of  marches  and  countermarches 
he  eluded  Cornwallis  until  he  found  himself  in  a  position  to  fight  at 
Guilford  Court  House.  His  force  was  4,404.  Cornwallis  had  2,213,  all 
veterans.  Greene  placed  in  front  his  North  Carolina  militia,  in  his 
second  line  his  Virginia  militia,  and  in  his  third  line  his  Maryland  and 
Virginia  regulars.  The  first  line  soon  broke,  but  the  second  was  pushed 
back  only  after  a  desperate  struggle.  In  the  third  line  the  right  wing 
was  victorious,  but  the  left  was  beaten  for  a  while,  until  Colonel  Wash- 
ington's cavalry  restored  it.  Cornwallis  was  now  reduced  to  the  defen- 
sive. He  retired  in  good  order  and  took  position  on  a  hill  near  Guilford 
Court  House.  All  attempts  to  dislodge  him  were  vain.  At  evening 
Greene  retired  with  a  loss  of  400.  The  British  had  fought  bravely, 
losing  600.  They  were  too  crippled  to  act,  and  Cornwallis  could  only 
retreat.  He  had  been  outgeneraled.  It  was  a  strategic  victory  for  the 
Americans  and  Cornwallis  was  forced  to  abandon  the  Carolinas. 

Gunboats.  The  "  gunboat  system  "  was  inaugurated  during  Jeffer- 
son's administration,  $50,000  being  appropriated  at  his  suggestion, 
February  28,  1803,  to  build  gunboats.  In  1806,  $60,000  more  were  ap- 
propriated for  the  building  of  240  gunboats  for  the  defense  of  fifteen 
principal  harbors.  The  seamen  of  the  towns  were  to  be  trained  to 
man  them,  and  they  were  to  be  drawn  up  under  sheds  when  not  in  use. 


3o8  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

The  gunboat  question  speedily  became  a  political  issue,  the  Federalists 
opposing  it  and  favoring  a  strong  navy,  the  Republicans  favoring  it. 
The  last  appropriation  was  made  in  1813.     The  gunboats  were  used  to' 
some  extent  during  the  War  of  1812. 

Gunston  Hall,  Fairfax  County,  Va.,  the  home  of  George  Mason,  of 
Revolutionary  fame.  This  old  mansion  continued  in  the  possession  of 
the  Mason  family  until  after  the  Civil  War. 

Guntown,  Miss.  Here,  June  10,  1864,  while  the  Confederate  cav- 
alryman Forrest  was  raiding  through  Mississippi,  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee, he  was  met  by  Sturgis  leading  a  force  of  8,000  Federals.  Forrest 
had  1,000  men.  He  attacked  Grierson,  who  led  the  Federal  van, 
speedily  routing  him.  Sturgis  hurried  up,  but  his  troops  were  wearied 
out  and  not  prepared  for  battle.  They  were  put  to  flight  and  200  bag- 
gage wagons  were  captured  by  the  Confederates. 

Guthrie,  James  (1792-1869),  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Senate 
from  1831  to  1840,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Pierce's  Cabinet  from 
1853  to  1857,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1865  to  1868. 

Gwynn's  Island,  Va.  Here  in  1776  Lord  Dunmore  was  intrenched 
with  his  British  and  Tory  troops.  December  8  the  colonial  troops, 
under  Lewis  and  Stephen,  attacked  and  dislodged  him,  forcing  him  to 
take  to  his  ships,  which  were  shelled  as  they  sailed  away.  Dunmore 
was  wounded. 


H. 


Habeas  Corpus,  Suspension  of.  On  July  5,  1861,  Attorney- 
General  Bates  gave  an  opinion  in  favor  of  the  President's  power  to  de- 
clare martial  law  and  suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  A  special 
session  of  Congress  approved  this  opinion.  Thereafter  many  arbitrary 
arrests  were  made,  arousing  much  indignation.  September  24,  1862, 
the  suspension  was  made  general  by  the  President  so  far  as  it  might 
affect  persons  arrested  by  military  authority  for  disloyal  practices.  An 
act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1863,  again  authorized  the  suspension  of  the 
writ  by  the  President  in  cases  of  prisoners  of  war,  deserters,  those  re- 
sisting drafts  and  offenders  against  the  military  or  naval  service.  The 
arrest  of  Vallandigham,  in  Ohio,  and  of  Milligan,  in  Indiana,  caused  great 
excitement.  The  case  of  the  latter  being  brought  before  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  Union,  that  body  decided  that  Congress  could  not  give  to 
military  commissions  the  power  of  trial  and  conviction,  and  that  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  309 

suspension  of  the  privilege  of  habeas  corpus  did  not  suspend  the  writ 
itself.  In  the  case  of  the  Ku-Klux  rebellions  there  was  a  brief  suspen- 
sion of  habeas  corpus  in  1871. 

Habersham,  Joseph  (1751-1815),  was  a  prominent  patriot  in 
Georgia  during  the  Revolution.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  the 
administrations  of  Washington,  Adams  and  Jefferson  from  1795  to  1801. 

Hadley,  Mass.,  settled  in  1659,  became  the  refuge  of  the  two 
English  regicides,  Go€e  and  Whalley,  in  1664.  The  town  was  attacked 
by  Indians  during  King  Philip's  War.  The  savages  were  repulsed  by 
the  townspeople  under  the  leadership  of  Colonel  Goffe,  one  of  the  regi- 
cides, who  suddenly  came  from  his  hiding-place  for  that  purpose. 

"Hail  Columbia,"  a  stirring  national  song.  The  music  was  com- 
posed in  1798  by  Pfyles,  leader  of  the  orchestra  at  the  John  Street 
Theater,  New  York,  and  was  for  a  time  known  as  the  "President's 
March."  The  words  were  composed  the  same  year  by  Judge  Hopkin- 
son,  after  which  the  air  became  immensely  popular,  it  having  been 
produced  in  a  period  of  great  political  excitement. 

Hakluyt,  Richard  (1553-1616),  English  author,  in  1582  published 
"  Divers  Voyages  Touching  the  Discovery  of  America,"  and  as  a  result 
of  further  investigations  in  France  wrote  "  A  Particular  Discourse  cov 
ering  Western  Discoveries."  In  1587  he  produced  the  "  History  of 
Four  Voyages  made  by  French  Captains  into  Florida,"  and  in  1589 
published  "The  Principal  Navigations,  Voyages  and  Discoveries  made 
by  the  English  Nation."  In  1606  he  appealed  to  the  king  for  a  charter 
for  the  colonization  of  Virginia,  and  was  one  of  the  members  of  the 
South  Virginia  Company. 

Hale,  Udward  Everett,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1822,  has  been 
pastor  of  the  South  Congregational  Church  since  1856.  He  is  a  popular 
orator  and  author,  and  has  done  considerable  historical  work,  being  an 
authority  on  Spanish-American  affairs,  has  contributed  to  histories  of 
the  United  States,  and  published ""  Franklin  in  France." 

Hale,  Eugene,  see  appendix,  page  484. 

Hale,  John  P.  (1806-1873),  born  in  Rochester,  N.  H.,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1830.  He  was  a  member  of  the  New  Hampshire  House  of 
Representatives  in  1832,  and  was  appointed  U.  S.  Attorney  for  the  dis- 
trict of  New  Hampshire  from  1834  to  1840.  He  represented  New  Hamp- 
shire in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1843  to  1845.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1847  to  1853,  being  the  first  zealous  opponent  of  slavery  in  that 
body,  and  was  nominated  in  1852  as  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the 
Free-Soil  party.     He  was  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1855  to  1865,  and 


310  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

was  appointed  Minister  to  Spain  by  President  Lincoln,  serving  from 
1865  to  1869. 

Hale,  Nathan  (i755-I776),  born  in  Connecticut,  joined  a  volunteer 
company  at  the  first  news  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  participated  in  the 
siege  of  Boston,  and  was  made  captain  in  1776.  He  captured  the 
British  supply  ship  ' '  Asia, ' '  and  volunteered  to  reconnoiter  the  position 
of  the  British  forces.  He  was  apprehended  and  hanged  as  a  spy,  his 
last  words  being,  "  I  only  regret  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my 
country." 

Half  Dollar,  silver  coin.  Its  coinage  was  authorized  (at  weight 
208  grains)  in  April,  1792,  and  begun  in  1794.  Its  weight  was  reduced 
in  1853  to  r92  grains.  This  coin  is  a  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  ten 
dollars.     There  were  no  issues  during  the  years  1798,  1799,  1800,  1816. 

Half  Eagle,  a  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  five  dollars,  stamped  upon 
the  reverse  with  a  figure  of  the  national  bird,  and  hence  the  name.  Its 
coinage  was  authorized  in  1792,  and  begun  in  1795.  The  first  return  of 
gold  coins  was  made  July  31,  1795,  744  half  eagles.  Authorized  a  second 
time  in  1837  ;  legal  tender  to  an  unlimited  amount.  No  coinage 
1816-17. 

Half- King,  the  name  by  which  the  English  called  a  chieftain  of 
Indians  on  the  Ohio,  friendly  to  the  English,  who  assisted  Washington 
on  his  expedition  of  1753  and  took  part  with  him  in  the  affair  of  the 
Great  Meadows  in  1754. 

"  Half  Moon,"  the  vessel  ill  which  Henry  Hudson,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  East  India  Company,  discovered  and  explored  in  1609  the 
river  which  bears  his  name. 

Half-way  Covenant,  a  concession  made  on  the  part  of  the  Church 
by  the  New  England  Synod  convened  at  Northampton  in  1657,  mainly 
in  order  to  secure  a  more  facile  working  in  relation  to  the  State.  The 
requirements  for  church  membership  were  relaxed  in  order  that  certain 
civil  privileges  might  be  obtained  by  those  who  had  neither  the  ability 
nor  willingness  to  make  profession  of  religious  experience.  Such  per- 
sons were  admitted  on  grounds  of  baptism,  but  were  still  denied  the 
Lord's  Supper.  This  half-way  covenant  aroused  much  controversy,  and 
was  later  opposed  by  Jonathan  Edwards  and  his  followers. 

Halifax  Commission.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  fisheries  treaty 
of  1 87 1  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the  fishermen  of 
the  latter  country  were  allowed  to  take  fish  along  the  shores  of  Canada 
and  Newfoundland.     The  inhabitants  of  these  States  complained,  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  311 

accordingly  a  commission  of  representatives  from  each  country  met  at 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1877,  to  determine  the  amount  of  compensa- 
tion to  be  paid  by  the  United  States  for  the  fishing  privileges  accorded 
them.     The  sum  of  15,500,000  was  awarded  Great  Britain. 

Hall,  Asaph,  born  in  1829,  has  been  connected  with  all  the  astro- 
nomical observations  of  the  U.  S.  Government  since  1863.  In  1877  he 
discovered  the  satellites  of  Mars,  and  has  made  important  observations 
of  double  stars. 

Hall,  Charles  P.  (1821-1871),  made  Arctic  expeditions  fitted  out 
by  Henry  Grinnell  in  i860  and  1864,  and  commanded  a  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment expedition  to  the  polar  region  in  1871,  making  many  valuable 
scientific  observations. 

Hall,  Nathan  K.  (1810-1874),  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  from  1847  to  1849  and  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  in 
Fillmore's  Cabinet,  serving  from  1850  to  1853,  when  he  became  a  U.  S. 
District  Judge,  serving  till  1874. 

Halleck,  Henry  W.  (1815-1872),  born  in  New  York,  graduated  at 
the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1839.  He  published  "  Elements  of 
Military  Art  and  Science"  in  1846,  which  was  a  classic  work  at  that 
time,  and  a  treatise  of  "  International  Law."  He  was  prominent  in  the 
military  and  political  movements  in  California  from  1846  to  1854,  and 
in  1861  was  appointed  major-general  of  the  U.  S.  army  and  assigned  to 
the  Department  of  Missouri,  and  successfully  organized  that  district. 
In  1862  he  received  command  of  the  Mississippi  Department,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  which  position 
he  retained  until  Grant  was  made  lieutenant-general.  After  the  war  he 
commanded  the  Pacific  Division  until  1869,  and  the  Division  of  the 
South  from  1869  to  1872. 

Hamilton,  Alexander  (January  11,  1757— July  12,  1804),  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  was  born  at  Nevis  in  the  West  Indies.  He  was  on  the 
one  side  of  Scottish,  on  the  other  of  French,  birth.  Deprived  of  parental 
care  at  an  early  age,  he  developed  an  astonishing  precocity,  and  was  in 
1772  sent  to  New  York  City.  There,  after  a  short  period  of  preparation, 
he  entered  King's  (now  Columbia)  College.  While  the  Revolutionary 
fever  was  at  its  height  Hamilton,  in  July,  1774,  made  a  public  speech  on 
the  patriotic  side,  marvelous  for  a  boy  of  seventeen.  He  followed  up 
this  success  by  a  vigorous  war  of  pamphlets.  When  hostilities  began 
Hamilton  organized  a  cavalry  company  and  served  at  Long  Island  and 
White  Plains.     As  a  member  of  Washington's  staff  he  rendered  valuable 


3i2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

aid  ;  resigning  from  membership  in  the  staff  in  1781  he  ended  a  brilliant 
military  career  at  Yorktown,  studied  law,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
General  Schuyler.  For  a  short  time,  1 782-1 783,  he  was  in  the  Conti- 
nental Congress.  He  had  risen  to  eminence  at  the  New  York  bar,  when 
he  took  part  in  the  Annapolis  Convention  of  1786.  There  followed 
two  years  of  contests  and  triumphs  of  the  greatest  renown  to  himself 
and  moment  to  his  country.  Hamilton  was  one  of  the  chief  members 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787.  He  advocated  a  very  strong 
central  government,  but  accepted  the  results  of  that  assembly,  and  re- 
turned to  New  York  to  further  by  pen  and  voice  the  ratification  of  our 
National  Constitution.  It  is  little  exaggeration  to  say  that  Hamilton 
was  practically  the  Federal  party  in  New  York.  Of  the  eighty-five 
papers  in  the  Federalist  fifty-one  are  undisputedly  his,  and  he  had  a 
part  in  the  production  of  others.  At  the  State  ratifying  Convention  in 
1788  at  Poughkeepsie  he  contended  almost  single-handed  against  a  two- 
thirds  majority,  which  he  converted  into  a  minority.  He  entered 
Washington's  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  1789.  His  report 
on  the  public  credit,  reports  on  revenue,  the  mint,  the  bank,  manufac- 
tures, etc. ,  were  of  the  utmost  value  in  placing  the  finances  on  a  sound 
footing.  Meanwhile  within  the  Cabinet  he  was  confronted  with  Jeffer- 
son, advocate  of  radically  different  ideas  ;  the  two  great  leaders  quar- 
reled almost  incessantly,  and  Hamilton  resigned  in  1795.  He  had  pre- 
viously accompanied  the  army  for  the  suppression  of  the  Whiskey  In- 
surrection. He  defended  Jay's  Treaty  with  Great  Britain  in  the  able 
"  Camillus  "  letters,  and  was  concerned  in  the  preparation  of  Washing- 
ton's Farewell  Address.  He  was  in  1798  appointed  inspector-general 
in  view  of-  the  imminent  war  with  France.  But  he  quarreled  with 
President  Adams  and  intrigued  against  the  latter  and  in  favor  of  Pinck- 
ney.  Hamilton  and  Burr  had  been  political  enemies  ;  the  latter,  while 
Vice-President,  brought  on  a  duel  at  Weehawken,  N.  J.,  July  11,  1804, 
in  which  Hamilton  was  mortally  wounded.  He  wrote,  besides  the  pa- 
pers mentioned  above,  the  "  Pacificus  "  letters,  report  on  the  public 
debt  in  1789,  etc.  Hamilton  was  perhaps  the  most  brilliant  of  American 
statesmen  ;  his  State  papers  were  models  of  luminous  and  convincing 
argumentation  ;  and  he  had  an  extraordinary  genius  for  administrative 
organization.  His  weaknesses  were,  an  imperious  self-confidence  and 
want  of  popular  sympathies. 

Hamilton,  Paul  (1762-1816),  active  in  the  Revolution,  was  Comp- 
troller of  South  Carolina  from  1799  to  1804,  Governor  from  1804  to  1806, 
and  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Madison's  Cabinet  from  1809  to  1813. 

Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  was  founded  by  Presbyterians 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  313 

in  1793  as  Hamilton  Oneida  Academy,  chartered  as  a  college  in  1812. 
Its  law  school  was  founded  in  1854. 

Hamlet  Case  (1850)  was  the  first  recorded  action  under  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Act  of  1850.  Hamlet,  a  free  negro  with  a  family,  was  arrested  in 
New  York  by  a  Deputy  U.  S.  Marshal  as  a  fugitive  slave  of  Mary 
Brown,  of  Baltimore,  and  after  a  hasty  examination  surrendered  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  law.  Indignation  was  aroused  and  he  was  finally 
redeemed. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal  (1809-1893),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  Legislature  from  1836  to  1840  and  in 
1 047,  being  chosen  Speaker  in  1837,  1839  and  1840.  He  was  a  Demo- 
cratic Representative  in  Congress  from  1842  to  1846,  was  elected  a 
U.  S.  Senator  in  1848  and  served  till  1857.  He  changed  his  party  afl&lia- 
tion  on  account  of  anti-slavery  sentiments,  and  was  chosen  Governor  by 
the  Republicans  in  1857.  He  resigned  and  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  1857  to  1861,  when  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Senate  from  1869  to  1881,  when  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Spain  and 
served  one  year. 

Hammond,  James  H.  (1807-1864),  editor  of  the  Southern  Times, 
a  nullification  paper,  represented  South  Carolina  in  Congress  from  1835 
to  1836,  was  Governor  of  the  State  from  1842  to  1844,  and  a  U.  S. 
Senator  from  1857  to  1861,  when  he  delivered  the  pro-slavery  speech 
which  won  from  him  the  name  of  "  Mudsill  Hammond. "  He  published 
"  The  Pro-Slavery  Argument  "  and  "Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Calhoun." 

Hampton,  Wade,  born  in  1818,  was  in  his  early  life  successively  a 
member  of  the  South  Carolina  House  of  Representatives  and  Senate. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  service 
and  afterward  commanded  a  force  known  as  Hampton's  Legion  of 
Cavalry,  which  distinguished  itself  at  Bull  Run,  Seven  Pines,  Gettys- 
burg and  Trevillion's  Station.  He  was  very  successful  in  raids  and  in 
detachment  service.  In  1876  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina  against  D.  H.  Chamberlain  and  gained  the 
disputed  ofiice.  He  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1879  and  served 
until  1891. 

Hampton,  Va.,  was  attacked  out  of  revenge  by  Admiral  Warren, 
after  his  defeat  at  Craney  Island.  A  battery  and  500  Virginia  militia 
defended  the  village.  Some  2,500  British  were  landed,  and  soon  drove 
the  militia  in  defeat.  The  Americans  lost  thirty  men,  the  British  fifty. 
The  village  was  then  pillaged  and  several  women  outraged.     Deep  in- 


3i4  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

dignation  was  aroused  on  both  sides  of  the  sea,  and  an  investigation 
was  made  by  a  British  commission. 

Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  or  the  "  Monitor  "  and  "  Merrimac  "  fight, 
the  most  famous  naval  battle  of  the  Civil  War,  occurring  March  8-9, 
1862.  March  8,  the  Confederate  iron-clad  "  Merrimac,"  commanded  by 
Franklin  Buchanan,  was  sent  to  raise  the  blockade  of  James  and  Eliza- 
beth Rivers  by  destroying  the  Union  war-vessels.  The  Union  frigate 
''Cumberland"  was  utterly  destroyed  and  sunk  by  the  "  Merrimac," 
which  next,  aided  by  three  wooden  Confederate  steamers,  attacked  and 
burned  the  "  Congress."  March  9,  the  "  Monitor,"  a  Union  iron-clad 
of  a  new  type,  appeared,  and  a  fight  of  four  hours  followed.  Captain 
Worden,  of  the  "  Monitor,"  was  temporarily  blinded  and  Lieutenant 
Greene  took  command.  The  engagement  was  so  fierce,  without  advan- 
tage to  either,  that  both  vessels  withdrew  to  repair  damages. 

Hancock,  John  (1 737-1793),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  a  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  from  1766  to  1772.  It  was  his  ship, 
the  "  Liberty,"  which  caused  a  riot  when  seized  by  the  royal  customs 
officials  for  an  alleged  evasion  of  the  laws  and  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners who  demanded  the  removal  of  the  British  troops  after  the 
Boston  massacre.  In  1774  he  was  elected  to  the  Provincial  Congress  at 
Concord,  Mass.,  and,  together  with  Samuel  Adams,  was  exempted  from 
pardon  in  Governor  Gage's  proclamation  of  1775.  He  represented 
Massachusetts  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1780  and  from 
1785  to  1786,  being  chosen  president  from  1775  to  1777,  and  was  a  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  his  name  standing  first  upon  that 
document.  In  1776  he  was  commissioned  major-general  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts militia,  and  in  1780  commanded  the  State  troops  in  the  expe- 
dition against  Rhode  Island.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Massachusetts 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1780,  and  was  Governor  of  the  State  from 
1780  to  1785  and  from  1787  to  1792,  and  in  the  Presidential  election  of 
1789  received  four  electoral  votes.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  and  popular 
character,  of  courtly  and  pleasing  manner  and  liberally  used  his  large 
fortune  for  benevolent  purposes. 

Hancock,  Winfield  S.  (1824-1886),  born  in  Pennsylvania,  gradu- 
ated from  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1844.  He  was  brevetted  first 
lieutenant  for  gallantry  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco  during  the  Mexi- 
can War.  He  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861, 
and  joined  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  served  under  General 
McClellan  in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  commanding  at  Yorktown, 
Williamsburg  and  Savage's  Station,  and  was  promoted  colonel  U.  S. 
army  for  his  meritorious  service.     He  led  his  brigade  at  South  Mountain 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  315 

and  Antietam,  commanded  as  major-general  at  Fredericksburg,  Chan- 
cellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  and  was  prominent  at  the  Wilderness, 
Spottsylvania,  Cold  Harbor  and  Petersburg.  In  1865  he  received  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  Shenandoah,  and  in  1866  was  made  a  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  He  was  the  Presidential  candidate  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  1880,  but  was  defeated  by  James  A.  Garfield. 
General  Grant  said  of  him,  "Hancock  stands  the  most  conspicuous 
figure  of  all  the  general  officers  who  did  not  exercise  a  separate  com- 
mand. He  commanded  a  corps  longer  than  any  other  one,  and  his 
name  was  never  mentioned  as  having  committed  in  battle  a  blunder  for 
which  he  was  responsible. ' ' 

Hanging  Rock,  Battle  of,  August  6,  1780.  At  this  place  General 
Sumter  surprised  the  British  post.  The  Tory  regiment  fled,  and  its 
panic  was  communicated  to  the  British  regulars.  At  the  outset  no 
American  had  more  than  ten  bullets,  but  before  the  close  of  the  engage- 
ment they  armed  themselves  from  the  dead  and  wounded.  Among 
those  engaged  was  Andrew  Jackson.  This  success  strengthened  the 
patriot  cause  in  all  parts  of  South  Carolina. 

Hanna,  Marcus  Alonso,  see  appendix,  page  484. 

Hanover  Court  House,  Va.,  an  engagement,  May  27,  1862, 
between  the  rear  ranks  of  Porter's  column  of  McClellan's  army  and  a 
Confederate  brigade  commanded  by  Branch.  The  latter  attacked 
Morell's  division  with  considerable  success,  but  Porter,  hearing  the 
firing,  immediately  wheeled  and  came  to  the  rescue.  The  Confeder- 
ates retreated  rapidly,  leaving  a  large  number  of  prisoners  and  small 
arms. 

Hardee,  William  J.  (1817-1873),  born  in  Georgia,  was  brevetted 
major  and  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallant  conduct  in  the  Mexican  War. 
In  1856  he  produced  a  work  for  the  Government  on  the  tactics  of  in- 
fantry, known  as  "  Hardee's  Tactics."  In  1861  he  enlisted  in  the  Con- 
federate service  as  a  colonel  at  Fort  Morgan,  and  was  soon  afterward 
made  brigadier-general.  He  gained  a  success  at  Shiloh,  was  prominent 
in  the  campaign  about  Murfreesboro,  and  fought  at  Chattanooga.  He 
surrendered  with  General  Johnston's  army  at  Durham  Station  in  1865. 

Hards,  in  the  political  history  of  New  York,  a  faction  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  existent  from  1852  to  i860,  which  inclined  to  alliance  with 
the  pro-slavery  Democracy  elsewhere,  as  distinguished  from  the  "  softs." 
In  part  the  "  hards  "  or  "  hardshells  "  were  identical  with  the  "hunk- 
ers "  of  preceding  years. 

Harlan,  James,  born  in  1820,  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S.  Senate 
from  1855  to  1865,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  Lincoln's 


3i6  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Cabinet,  serving  until  1866.     He  was  again  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1866 
to  1873. 

Harlan,  John  M.,  born  in  1833,  .served  in  the  Union  army  from 
1861  to  1S67,  was  Attorney-General  of  Kentucky  from  1863  to  1867,  was 
a  member  of  the  Louisiana  Commission  appointed  by  Hayes,  and  be- 
came a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1877.  In  1893  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Court  of  Arbitration  on  the  Behring  Sea  dispute. 

Harlem  Plains,  a  battle  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  on  September 
16,  1776.  Just  after  Howe's  occupation  of  New  York  his  advanced  guard 
of  English  and  Highland  troops,  under  Colonel  Leslie,  came  into  con- 
flict with  some  troops  of  Virginia  under  Major  Leitch,  and  of  Connecti- 
cut under  Knowlton.  Both  sides  were  reinforced.  Knowlton,  attempt- 
ing to  flank  the  British,  was  killed.  The  Americans  retreated,  under 
orders  from  Washington,  with  a  loss  of  sixty  killed  and  wounded. 

Harmar,  Josiah  (1753-1813),  born  in  Philadelphia,  served  during 
the  Revolutionary  War,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  U.  S.  army  from  1789  to  1792. 

Harmonists,  a  socialistic  community  founded  upon  a  religious  basis 
by  George  Rapp,  of  Wiirtemberg,  in  the  Connoquenessing  Valley, 
twenty-five  miles  from  Pittsburg,  in  1803.  There  they  built  houses, 
churches,  mills  and  manufactories,  and  by  1805  there  were  750  persons 
settled  there,  who  formed  the  Harmony  Society.  After  two  years  they 
decided  to  adopt  celibacy,  and  prohibited  the  use  of  tobacco.  This 
caused  the  withdrawal  of  certain  of  their  people.  In  1814  the  Harmon- 
ists purchased  30,000  acres  of  land  in  Posey  County,  Indiana,  settling 
there  in  1815.  There  they  remained  until  1824,  calling  their  settlement 
"Harmony."  In  1824  they  removed  to  their  present  location,  on  the 
Ohio  River,  not  far  from  Pittsburg.  In  183 1,  a  German  adventurer, 
Bernhard  Miiller,  settling  among  them,  caused  dissensions  and  a  split 
in  the  society. 

Harney,  William  S.  (1800-1889),  joined  the  U.  S.  army  in  1818, 
was  brevetted  major-general  in  1865  for  long  and  faithful  service  chiefly 
against  the  Indians,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  the  oldest  officer 
in  the  U.  S.  Army. 

Harper's  Ferry,  Va.  In  July,  1859,  John  Brown  settled  near 
Harper's  Ferry  and  began,  with  the  aid  of  some  Kansas  associates,  the 
forcible  liberation  of  slaves.  October  17  he  seized,  with  seventeen 
whites  and  five  negroes,  the  United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry, 
and  spent  the  next  eighteen  hours  in  freeing  slaves,  cutting  telegraph 
wires,  preparing  defenses  and  making  prisoners   of  fifty  white  men. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  317 

October  18,  1,500  militia  and  marines  arrived.  They  surrounded  the 
armory  engine  house,  burst  open  the  door  and  captured  Brown,  three 
other  whites  and  half  a  dozen  negroes.  Eight  of  the  insurgents  were 
killed.  Brown  was  taken  to  Charlestown,  Va.,  and  there  hanged,  De- 
cember 2,  1859. 

Harpers  Ferry,  Va.  (1862),  was  in  possession  of  the  Union  troops, 
and  captured  by  Stonewall  Jackson  September  15.  The  Union  leaders, 
Miles  and  White,  held  the  town  with  11,000  men.  Miles  had  posted  a 
few  regiments  upon  the  heights  commanding  the  town,  but  these  were 
easily  driven  away  by  McLaws  while  Jackson  approached  and  bombarded 
the  town,  which  surrendered  as  he  was  about  to  attack  it.  Miles  was 
mortally  wounded.     The  garrison  was  captured. 

"  Harper's  Magazine,"  founded  in  1850  by  the  Harper  Brothers. 
It  was  originally  an  eclectic  magazine  containing  the  choicest  contri- 
butions to  English  periodicals.  This  purely  eclectic  character  was  soon 
abandoned,  and  nearly  every  contemporaneous  American  and  English 
writer  of  note  has  contributed  to  its  pages. 

Harris,  Isham  G.,  born  in  Tennessee  in  1818,  devoted  his  evenings 
to  the  study  of  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Legislature  of  Tennessee  from  1849  to  1853,  and  served  as 
Governor  of  the  State  from  1857  until  the  occupation  of  Tennessee  by 
the  national  army.  He  was  an  aide  on  General  Johnston's  staff,  and 
served  in  the  West  throughout  the  war.  He  was  elected  a  U.  S.  Senator 
in  1877,  and  has  served  until  his  death,  July  8,  1897. 

Harris,  William  T.,  born  in  1835,  founder  and  editor  of  the 
Journal  of  Speculative  Philosophy \  is  prominent  in  educational  circles, 
and  from  1889  to  1893  was  chief  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

Harrisburg  Convention.  In  1827  a  high  tariff  bill,  known  as  the 
"  Woolen  Bill,"  was  introduced  into  Congress  by  Clay  and  his  adher- 
ents. It  passed  the  House,  but  was  defeated  in  the  Senate  by  the  cast- 
ing vote  of  the  Vice-President.  Accordingly  the  protectionist  faction, 
in  1828,  called  a  convention  at  Harrisburg.  The  delegates  were  chiefly 
from  New  England  and  the  Middle  States.  The  convention  presented 
the  cause  of  protection  to  the  people,  and  decided  to  seek  an  increased 
duty,  not  only  on  woolens,  but  on  other  specified  articles  of  manufac- 
ture.    This  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the  high  tariff  bill  of  1828. 

Harrison,  Benjamin  (1740-1791),  born  in  Virginia,  was  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Burgesses  in  1764,  a  member  of  the  Correspondence 


318  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Committee  in  1773,  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from 
1774  to  1778.  IJrom  1778  to  1782  he  was  Speaker  of  the  Virginia  House 
of  Burgesses,  and  ardently  advocated  united  opposition  to  Great  Britain. 
He  was  Governor  of  the  State  from  1782  to  1784,  and  when  a  delegate 
to  the  State  Convention  of  1788  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  Consti- 
tution as  being  a  national  and  not  a  Federal  document. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  born  August  20,  1833,  twenty-third  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  the  grandson  of  President  William  Henry 
Harrison,  and  was  born  at  North  Bend,  Ohio.  He  was  graduated  at 
Miami  University  in  1852,  and  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Indianapolis.  He 
was  elected  reporter  of  the  Indiana  Supreme  Court  in  i860,  but  his  term 
was  interrupted  by  the  war.  He  volunteered  in  1862  and  was  colonel 
of  an  Indiana  regiment  ;  in  the  battles  of  Resaca  and  Peach  Tree  Creek 
in  1864  he  won  distinction.  Leaving  the  army  with  the  brevet  of 
brigadier-general,  he  resumed  his  position  of  Supreme  Court  reporter. 
General  Harrison  was  a  successful  lawyer  and  campaign  orator,  and  in 
1876  he  received  the  Republican  nomination  for  Governor,  being  de- 
feated by  a  small  majority.  His  name  was  presented  to  the  Republican 
National  Convention  of  1880.  Elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  he  served 
from  1881  to  1887.  At  the  National  Convention  of  1888  he  was  a  lead- 
ing candidate  from  the  start,  received  the  nomination,  and  was  elected 
over  President  Cleveland  in  a  campaign  in  which  protection  was  the 
principal  issue.  In  his  Cabinet,  Blaine  in  the  State  and  Windom  in 
the  Treasury  Department  were  national  figures.  Proctor,  and  later 
Elkins,  was  in  the  "War  Department,  B.  F.  Tracy  in  the  Navy,  Noble  in 
the  Interior,  Lusk  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Miller  Attorney-General, 
and  Wanamaker  Postmaster-General.  The  administration  was  marked 
politically  by  the  McKinley  Tariff  Act  in  1890,  with  the  attendant  fea- 
ture of  reciprocity  ;  the  foreign  relations  with  Chili  and  Hawaii  were 
matters  of  interest.  In  1892  the  President  was  a  candidate  for  renomi- 
nation,  and  received  the  gift  over  his  powerful  rival,  Blaine,  who  re- 
signed from  the  Cabinet  during  the  contest.  President  Harrison  was  in 
the  election  again  confronted  with  Cleveland.  The  Democratic  re- 
action, very  marked  in  1890,  proved  to  be  still  in  force,  and  the  Presi- 
dent was  defeated  and  retired  from  office  in  1893. 

Harrison,  William  Henry  (February  9, 1773— April  4,  1841),  ninth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  was  son  of 
Benjamin  Harrison,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College,  entered  the  army,  and  fought 
at  Wayne's  victory  of  1794.  In  1798  he  became  Secretary  of  the  North- 
west Territory,  and  in  1799  delegate  to  Congress.     In  1800  he  was  ap- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  319 

pointed  Governor  of  the  new  Indiana  Territory.  He  was  still  Governor 
when  the  Indian  outbreak  occurred,  and  his  victory  at  Tippecanoe, 
November  7,  181 1,  gave  to  him  a  national  reputation  and  an  epithet  for 
life.  In  the  War  of  1812  he  was  major-general,  first  of  Kentucky  mil- 
itia, and  then  in  the  regular  army.  He  defended  Fort  Meigs  against 
the  British  in  1813,  and  on  October  5  of  the  same  year  he  achieved  his 
second  noted  military  exploit  by  defeating  Proctor  and  Tecumseh  at 
the  battle  of  the  Thames.  General  Harrison  resigned  from  the  army 
in  1814.  From  1816  to  1819  he  was  Congressman,  from  1825  to  1828 
U.  S.  Senator,  and  U.  S.  Minister  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia  1828- 
1829.  As  the  Whig  candidate  for  President  in  1836  he  was  defeated  by 
Van  Buren.  In  December,  1839,  the  Whig  Convention  put  Harrison 
again  before  the  country,  and  Van  Buren  was  again  his  antagonist. 
The  campaign  of  1840  was  without  precedent  or  successor.  The  "  log 
cabin  and  hard  cider, ' '  charged  by  his  opponents  against  his  early  rec- 
ord, became  a  tower  of  strength  to  him  ;  a  "  campaign  ball  "  was  set 
rolling  across  the  country  ;  and  ' '  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too  ' '  were 
fairly  "  sung  into  the  White  House."  In  his  Cabinet  Webster  as  Secre- 
tary of  State  was  the  ablest  member.  Fatigue  and  exposure  and  im- 
portunities of  office-seekers  caused  his  death  after  a  month  of  service, — 
the  first  death  of  a  President  while  in  ofiice.  General  Harrison,  though 
by  no  means  brilliant,  was  an  able  administrator,  and  a  man  of  good 
sense. 

Harrison,  Fort,  Ind.,  a  small  fort,  commanded  by  Captain  Zachary 
Taylor  with  fifty  men,  attacked  September  5,  1812,  by  Indians  and 
partly  burned.  The  fort  was  saved  by  reinforcements  with  the  loss  of 
only  three  men. 

Harrison,  Fort,  Va.,  wrested  from  the  Confederates  by  a  small 
detachment  of  Grant's  Federal  army,  September  28,  1864,  during  the 
campaign  in  the  vicinities  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg. 

Harrodsbnrg",  Ky.,  the  oldest  town  in  the  State.  The  first  cabin 
was  built  here  in  1774  by  Captain  James  Harrod. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  was  settled  in  1635  by  emigrants  from  eastern 
Massachusetts,  under  the  lead  of  Thomas  Hooker.  The  Constitution 
for  the  colony,  the  first  framed  in  America,  was  written  here  in  1639. 
It  became  the  capital  of  the  colony.  In  1687  Sir  E.  Andros  demanded 
the  charter  from  the  assembly  in  session  in  the  city,  but  it  was  con- 
cealed, it  is  said,  in  the  "  Charter  Oak."  Trinity  College  was  founded 
in  Hartford  in  1823. 

Hartford  Convention  met  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  December  15,  1814, 


320  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

and  adjourned  January  5,  1815.  It  consisted  of  delegates  from  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  and  was  the  outgrowth  of  the 
opposition  of  the  New  England  Federalists  to  the  war  with  Great  Britain, 
which  was  then  in  progress  and  which  was  especially  injurious  to  the 
commercial  interests  of  New  England.  The  New  England  States 
strongly  denounced  the  policy  of  the  Democratic  administration  in  the 
conduct  of  the  war,  especially  in  respect  to  forcible  drafts.  The  con- 
vention was  held  in  secret,  and  many  false  reports  were  circulated  respect- 
ing the  meeting,  though  the  general  aim  seems  to  have  been  to  determine 
as  far  as  possible,  the  question  of  States'  rights.  Its  proceedings  brought 
upon  the  New  England  Federalists  great  odium. 

Hartranft,  John  P.  (1830-1889),  entered  the  army  in  1861,  had 
commands  at  Roanoke,  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg,  was  brigadier- 
general  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Petersburg,  and  brevetted 
major-general  in  1865.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from  1872  to 
1878. 

Harvard  University,  the  oldest  college  in  the  United  States,  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.  It  was  founded  in  1636,  and  chartered  in  165c  by 
the  General  Court.  In  1638  it  was  named  after  Rev.  John  Harvard,  who 
left  it  probably  ^750.  Its  first  class,  consisting  of  nine,  was  graduated 
in  1642.  It  received  State  aid,  in  addition  to  private  benefactions,  till 
1814,  but  its  official  connection  with  the  commonwealth  continued  till 
1865,  after  which  time  the  control  of  the  university  was  vested  in  its 
alumni.  Besides  its  academic  department  it  has  schools  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  science  and  dental  surgery,  founded  respectively  in  1819, 
1817,  1782,  1848  and  1868. 

Hatcher's  Run,  Va.,  scene  of  two  severe  engagements  during  the 
Civil  War,  while  Grant  and  Lee  were  maneuvering  about  Richmond  and 
Petersburg.  October  27,  1864,  Grant  endeavored  to  force  a  passage  of 
Hatcher's  Run  and  move  against  the  South  Side  Railroad.  Finding  no 
assailable  point  in  the  Confederate  lines  he  decided  to  withdraw,  when 
suddenly  the  Confederates  fell  furiously  upon  Hancock's  rear  ranks. 
Hancock  turned  and  drove  them  back  to  their  fortifications.  From 
February  5  to  7,  1865,  there  was  also  some  severe  fighting  about 
Hatcher's  Run  between  Hancock,  who  was  endeavoring  to  push  the 
Federal  lines  to  that  stream,  and  the  Confederates  under  Gordon  and 
Hill.     Hancock  was  successful. 

Hatter  as  Inlet,  N.  C,  location  of  two  Confederate  forts  com- 
manded by  Samuel  Barron,  and  deemed  a  valuable  passage  for  landing 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  321 

the  ammunition  and  supplies  of  the  Confederacy,  and  for  sending  cotton 
out  of  the  country.  General  Butler  and  Commodore  Stringhain  fitted 
out  an  expedition  against  these  forts,  Clark  and  Hatteras,  and  sailed 
from  Hampton  Roads  August  26,  1861,  with  ten  vessels  carrying  15S 
guns  and  900  men.  Fort  Clark,  the  weaker  position,  was  speedily 
reduced,  August  27,  by  the  guns  of  the  Federal  ships  ' '  Minnesota, ' ' 
11  Wabash  "  and  "  Susquehanna,"  and  Hatteras  was  captured  after  pro- 
tracted bombardment  the  next  day.  Barron  and  700  Confederates  were 
made  prisoners. 

Hatton,  Frank  (1846-1894),  was  Assistant  Postmaster-General  from 
1881  to  1884,  when  he  was  made  Postmaster-General  in  Arthur's 
Cabinet,  being  the  youngest  officer  ever  in  a  U.  S.  Cabinet  except  Alex- 
ander Hamilton. 

Haw,  Battle  of  the,  February  25,  1781.  About  400  loyalists  had 
collected  near  the  Haw.  Henry  Lee,  by  passing  for  Tarleton's  force, 
got  among  them.  The  trick  was  discovered  and  a  hot  fight  followed  in 
which  ninety  loyalists  were  slain  and  many  wounded.  Lee's  loss  was 
light. 

Hawaii.  A  treaty  of  commerce  and  for  the  extradition  of  criminals 
was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and  Hawaii  in  1849,  and  a 
reciprocity  treaty  in  1875,  extended  by  the  Convention  of  1887.  Treaty 
rights  were  further  confirmed  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1891.  The  coup 
d'Uat  of  January,  1893,  deposed  the  queen  and  established  a  republic, 
with  Sanford  B.  Dole  as  president,  annexation  to  United  States  requested. 
An  annexation  treaty  was  concluded  February  14,  1893,  providing  for 
the  cession  to  the  United  States  of  all  rights  of  sovereignty  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  and  their  dependencies  ;  for  reference  to  the  U.  S. 
Congress  of  all  questions  of  administration,  the  provisional  government 
meanwhile  to  continue  under  United  States  guidance  ;  for  the  assump- 
tion by  the  United  States  of  the  Hawaiian  debt  to  the  limit  of  $3,250,- 
000  ;  for  the  regulation  of  Chinese  immigration  ;  and  for  the  support  of 
deposed  royalty.  The  close  of  the  session  of  Congress  prevented  its 
ratification  by  that  body,  and  the  incoming  administration  proving 
hostile  to  the  treaty  it  was  not  ratified.  Another  treaty  of  annexation 
was  introduced  during  the  beginning  of  McKinley's  administration, 
which  was  ratified  July  7,  1898,  and  Sanford  G.  Dole  was  appointed 
provisional  president  until  a  new  government  can  be  organized  and 
established.  The  archipelago  comprises  eight  principal  islands,  with  a 
total  area  of  6,740  sq.  miles  and  a  total  population  of  105,963.  See  ap- 
pendix, page  416. 

Hawley,  Joseph  R.,  born  in  1826,  was  admitted  to  the  Connecticut 
Vol.  V.~ 21 


322  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

bar  in  1S50.  In  1857  he  became  editor  of  the  Hartford  Evening  Press, 
which  advanced  the  interests  of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  the 
first  Connecticut  volunteer  in  the  Civil  War,  enlisted  as  a  captain,  and 
was  mustered  out  as  brevet  major-general  in  1865.  In  1866  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Connecticut,  and  in  1868  was  president  of  the 
National  Republican  Convention,  in  that  of  1872  secretary  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Resolutions  and  its  chairman  in  1876.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Con- 
gressman from  1872  to  1 88 1,  when  he  was  chosen  Senator. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel  (1804-1864),  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass. 
He  contributed  his  early  productions  to  periodicals  such  as  the  New 
England  Magazine,  the  American  Magazine,  the  Dernocratic  Review 
and  the  Token.  In  1837  appeared  his  "  Twice-Told  Tales,"  and  in  1849 
he  published  the  ' '  Scarlet  Letter, ' '  which  at  once  brought  him  into 
prominence.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  Consul  at  Liverpool  by  Presi- 
dent Pierce,  and  served  until  1857.  He  is  the  greatest  romance-writer 
that  America  has  produced. 

Hay,  John,  born  in  1838,  was  assistant-secretary  to  President  Lin- 
coln in  1861.  He  served  several  months  in  the  Civil  War,  and  from 
1865  to  1867  was  secretary  of  legation  to  Paris,  charge  d'affaires  at 
Vienna  until  1868,  and  secretary  at  Madrid  until  1870.  He  became 
associated  with  the  Nezv  York  Tribune,  and  from  1879  to  t88i  was 
First  Assistant  Secretary  of  State.  He  is  widely  known  for  his  dialect 
sketches  and  poems,  and  for  Nicolay  and  Hay's  life  of  Lincoln. 
Became  Ambassador  to  England  May,  1897,  which  office  he  resigned^ 
and  became  Secretary  of  State,  McKinley's  Cabinet,  Sept.  30,  1898.     &<*4   \*( 

Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  a  treaty  negotiated  Feb.  5,  1900,  by 
Secretary  of  State  John  Hay,  for  America,  and  Sir  Julian  Pauncefote, 
ambassador  extraordinary,  representing  Great  Britain  at  Washington, 
abrogating  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  and  giving  the  right  to  the 
United  States  to  construct  the  Nicaragua  Canal.  The  conditions, 
reserved  for  England,  were  that  the  canal  should  be  kept  open  at  all 
times,  whether  in  war  or  peace,  to  vessels  of  commerce,  without  dis- 
crimination, and  that  no  fortifications  shall  be  constructed  commanding 
the  canal  or  the  water  adjacent.  So  much  opposition  developed  to  the 
treaty  that  Senator  Davis  offered  an  amendment  which  the  Foreign 
Affairs  Committee  adopted,  giving  to  the  United  States  the  right  to  apply 
measures  which  may  be  found  necessary  for  providing  a  perfect  defense 
of  the  canal.  This  clause  was  objected  to  by  the  administration  and  by 
England,  as  being  in  violation  of  the  express  stipulation  of  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  and  as  against  the  spirit  of  compromise  contemplated  by 
the  treaty  of  abrogation. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


323 


Hayes,  Isaac  I.  (1832-1881),  made  three  voyages  of  exploration  to 
the  Arctic  regions,  served  as  surgeon  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Assembly  from  1865  to  1870. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birehard  (October  4,  1822 — January  17, 1893), 
nineteenth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Delaware,  O., 
and  graduated  at  Kenyon  College  in  1842.  He  practiced  law  in  Fre- 
mont, O.,  and  became  city  solicitor  in  Cincinnati.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  he  volunteered,  and  rose  from  major  of  Ohio  infantry  to  briga- 
dier-general and  brevet  major-general.  He  was  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  South  Mountain,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Shenandoah  cam- 
paign of  1864  at  Winchester,  Fisher's  Hill  and  Cedar  Creek.  He  en- 
tered Congress  in  1865,  and,  having  been  elected  Governor  of  his  State, 
he  occupied  that  position  from  1868  to  1872.  He  was  defeated  for 
Congressman  in  1872,  but  elected  Governor  in  1875  on  the  "honest 
money  ' '  issue,  after  a  campaign  which  attracted  national  attention.  It 
was  this  success  which  caused  Governor  Hayes'  name  to  be  presented  to 
the  Republican  National  Convention  of  1876.  The  two  leading  can- 
didates, Blaine  and  Bristow,  were  set  aside,  and  Hayes  was  nominated 
on  the  seventh  ballot.  (For  the  doubtful  result  and  final  settlement  of 
this  extraordinary  Hayes-Tilden  campaign,  see  Electoral  Commission.) 
Mr.  Hayes  was  declared  elected  March  2,  1877,  and  inaugurated  March  5. 
He  selected  Evarts  for  the  State  Department,  Sherman  for  the  Treasury, 
McCrary  for  War,  R.  W.  Thompson  for  the  Navy,  Schurz  for  the  In- 
terior, Devens  Attorney-General  and  D.  M.  Key  Postmaster-General. 
During  his  administration  occurred  the  great  railroad  strikes  of  1877, 
and  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  in  1879.  President  Hayes 
favored  civil  service  reform,  a  conciliatory  policy  in  the  South,  vetoed 
the  Bland  bill  and  vetoed  a  Chinese  restriction  bill.  After  the  close  of 
his  term,  in  1881,  he  lived  in  retirement  in  Ohio. 

Haytnarket  Massacre  (Chicago),  an  Anarchist  riot,  originating  in 
labor  troubles  which  culminated  in  an  open-air  meeting  in  Haymarket 
Square,  May  4,  1886.  Violent  speeches  were  made  by  the  Anarchists 
Spies,  Parsons  and  Fielden.  A  bomb  was  thrown  among  the  police, 
causing  great  loss  of  life.  Spies,  Parsons,  Fischer,  Engel,  Schwab, 
Lingg  and  Neebe  were  arrested  and  tried.  The  first  four  were  hanged 
November  11,  1887.  Fielden  and  Schwab  were  sentenced  for  life. 
Lingg  committed  suicide.  Governor  Altgeld,  of  Illinois,  pardoned 
Fielden  and  Schwab  in  1893. 

Hayne,  Isaac  (1745-1781),  born  in  South  Carolina,  entered  the 
colonial  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  and  when  the  British 
took  possession  of  Charleston  in  1780  wa9  paroled.     In  1781  he  made  an 


324  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

incursion  against  the  British,  was  pursued  by  a  superior  force  and  taken 
prisoner.  He  was  sentenced  to  death  by  the  British  without  a  trial  and 
hanged. 

Hayne,  Paul  H.  (1830-1886),  "  The  Laureate  of  the  South,"  editor 
of  numerous  periodicals,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  literary 
life  of  the  South,  and  published  a  great  number  of  poems. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young  (1791-1839),  served  during  the  War  of 
1812,  and  was  a  member  of  the  South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1814  to 
1818,  in  which  year  he  was  Speaker.  From  1818  to  1822  he  was  Attor- 
ney-General of  the  State,  and  in  1823  was  sent  to  the  U.  S.  Senate,  where 
he  strenuously  opposed  the  protective  system,  denying  its  constitution- 
ality. He  asserted  that  under  the  Constitution  a  State  had  the  right  to 
arrest  the  operation  of  such  Federal  enactments  as  she  considered  uncon- 
stitutional. This  led  to  the  famous  debate  between  Webster  and  Hayne 
in  1830,  respecting  State  rights  and  nullification.  He  was  Chairman  of 
the  State  Convention  in  1832,  which  reported  the  celebrated  ordinance 
of  nullification,  and  was  Governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1832  to  1834, 
when  that  State  prepared  to  enforce  the  nullification  ordinance  and 
make  armed  resistance  against  the  Federal  authority  ;  but  the  tariff  bill 
of  Henry  Clay  compromised  the  difficulties.  Hayne  was  a  brilliant 
speaker. 

Hays,  Alexander  (1819-1864),  enlisted  in  the  Civil  War  as  colonel 
in  the  Maryland  campaign,  fought  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg, 
was  brevetted  colonel  U.  S.  A.,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness. 

Hayward,  a  town  officer  appointed  in  the  early  New  England  colo- 
nies to  look  after  hedges  and  boundaries  of  private  property  and  prevent 
encroachment.  Also,  his  office  was  akin  to  that  of  the  impounder  and 
common  driver. 

Hazelwood,  John  (i726?-i8oo?),  born  in  England,  was  a  commo- 
dore in  the  Pennsylvania  navy  in  1776,  and  while  commander  of  the 
State  navy  in  1777  and  of  the  Continental  vessels  on  the  Delaware  River, 
became  prominent  for  skill  and  success. 

nasen,  William  B.  (1830-1887),  commanded  in  the  Mexican  War, 
led  a  brigade  at  Shiloh,  Chickamauga  and  Missionary  Ridge,  was  pro- 
moted major-general,  and  was  afterward  prominent  in  the  Signal  Service, 
of  which  he  was  chief  from  1880  to  1887. 

Heath,  William  (1737-1814),  was  chosen  captain  of  the  Suffolk 
regiment  before  the  Revolution,  and  commanded  the  Boston  artillery  in 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  325 

1770.  He  was  a  Massachusetts  Assemblyman  in  1761  and  from  1771  to 
1774,  and  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Safety  and  of  the  Provincial 
Congress  from  1774  to  1775.  He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  1774 
for  meritorious  services,  and  was  promoted  major-general  in  1775.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  ratified  the  Constitution,  was  a 
State  Senator  from  1791  to  1792,  and  a  probate  judge  from  1793. 

Heintselman,  Samuel  P.  (1805-1880),  graduated  at  West  Point, 
served  as  a  captain  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  brevetted  major  for 
bravery.  He  was  commissioned  colonel  in  the  Civil  War,  and  afterward 
commanded  as  brigadier-general  at  Alexandria,  Bull  Run,  Yorktown, 
Williamsburg  and  Fair  Oaks,  and  in  1863  commanded  the  Northern 
Department.  He  was  retired  in  1869  with  full  rank  of  major-general, 
U.  S.  A. 

Helster,  I,eopold  Philip  von  (1 707-1 777),  Hessian  lieutenant- 
general  and  commander  of  all  the  Hessians  in  America,  landed  at  Long 
Island  in  command  of  two  Hessian  brigades  in  1776,  and  aided  the  Brit- 
ish against  the  colonies  at  that  place  and  at  White  Plains.  In  1777  ne 
was  recalled  at  the  desire  of  Howe. 

Helena,  Ark.,  fortified  and  occupied  by  4,500  Federals  under  Pren- 
tiss in  1863.  The  Confederates,  Holmes,  Price  and  Marmaduke,  as- 
saulted this  position  July  4,  with  8,000  soldiers.  Charge  after  charge  was 
made,  but  all  proved  ineffectual.  The  National  batteries  inflicted  terri- 
ble losses  upon  the  assaulting  troops.  Holmes  ordered  a  retreat  about 
noon,  having  lost  fully  twenty  per  cent,  of  his  army. 

Helper,  Hinton  R.,  born  1829,  author  of  "  The  Impending  Crisis 
of  the  South,"  a  book  which,  in  the  anti-slavery  struggles  just  before 
the  war,  made  a  profound  impression,  as  presenting  the  views  of  the  non- 
slaveholding  whites  of  the  South.  He  was  U.  S.  Consul  at  Buenos 
Ayres  from  1861  to  1867,  and  was  first  to  conceive  and  advocate  the  con- 
struction of  a  line  of  railway  from  Hudson  Bay  to  Patagonia,  which 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  several  reports  by  Pan-American  com- 
missions. 

Henderson.  David  B.,  born  in  1840,  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
member  of  Congress  since  1883,  and  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  56th 
Congress. 

Henderson,  John  B.,  born  in  1826,  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri 
Legislature  in  1848  and  1856,  and  while  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1863  to  1869 
was  one  of  the  Republicans  who  opposed  the  impeachment  of  President 
Johnson. 


3*6  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Henderson,  Richard  (I734-I785).  a  Judge  in  the  North  Carolina 
Supreme  Court  in  1769,  organized  the  "Transylvania  Land  Company  " 
in  1775,  and  established  a  government  Over  that  Western  region,  but 
was  declared  guilty  of  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  Virginia  by  the 
Legislature  of  that  State. 

Hendrick  (i68o?-i755),  a  Mohawk  chief  who  represented  the  Six 
Nations  at  a  treaty  congress  in  1754  at  Albany,  and  who  faithfully  aided 
the  British  against  the  French. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.  (1819-1885),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1843.  He  was  elected  to  the  Indiana  House  of  Representatives  in  1848, 
and  became  a  State  Senator  in  1849.  I11  I^5o  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  convention  to  revise  the  State  Constitution,  and  represented 
Indiana  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from  1851  to  1855.  He 
was  appointed  by  President  Pierce,  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office,  serving  from  1855  to  1859,  an&  from  1863  to  1869  was  a  U.  S. 
Senator.  He  was  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1872  to  1877,  and  in  1876 
was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States 
on  the  ticket  with  Samuel  J.  Tilden.  Pie  was  the  unanimous  choice  of 
the  Democratic  party  for  Vice-President  in  1884,  and  was  elected  on 
the  ticket  with  Grover  Cleveland  for  President,  but  died  during  his 
first  year  of  office. 

Hening's  Statutes,  the  first  complete  collection  ever  published  of 
the  laws  of  any  colony  and  State,  with  inclusion  of  those  obsolete  and 
repealed.  Hening's  "Statutes  at  Large  of  Virginia"  was  published, 
beginning  in  1809,  by  W.  \V.  Hening,  largely  at  the  instance  of  Presi- 
dent Jefferson.     It  is  of  great  value  as  a  source  of  history.     (13  vols.) 

Hennepin,  I/OUis  (i64o?-i7oi),  a  missionary  of  the  Order  of  Recol- 
lets  of  St.  Francis,  was  born  in  Belgium.  He  came  to  Canada  in  1673, 
and  founded  a  convent  at  Fort  Frontenac  in  1676.  He  accompanied 
La  Salle's  expedition  to  the  West  and  to  the  Niagara  and  the  Upper 
Lakes  in  1678,  and  constructed  Fort  Crevecceur  in  Illinois.  Hennepin 
and  his  followers  proceeded  down  the  Mississippi  until  captured  by 
the  Sioux  in  1680.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  published  his  ' '  Descrip- 
tion de  la  Louisiane  nouvellement  decouverte  au  sud-ouest  de  la  Nouvelle 
France,"  and  in  1697  his  "Nouvelle  decouverte  d'un  tres-grand  pays 
situe"  dans  l'Amerique,  entre  le  Nouveau-Mexique  et  la  mer  Glaciale." 
He  claimed  to  be  the  first  to  descend  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
but  this  is  open  to  dispute. 

Henry  VII.  (1457-1509),  King  of  England  from  1485  to  1509,  granted 
on  March  5,  1495,  to  John  Cabot,  his  three  sons,  their  heirs  and  assigns, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  327 

a  patent  for  the  discovery  of  unknown  lands  in  the  Eastern,  Western 
and  Northern  seas,  with  a  right  to  occupy  such  territories  and  to  have 
exclusive  commerce  with  them,  paying  to  the  king  one-fifth  part  of  all 
the  profits.  The  enterprise  was  to  be  "at  their  own  proper  cost  and 
charge."  In  his  book  of  private  expenses  for  1497  there  is  an  item, 
"To  him  that  found  the  new  isle,  ^"io,"  no  doubt  referring  to  Cabot 

Henry,  Joseph  (1 797-1878),  physicist,  made  highly  valuable  con- 
tributions to  science,  particularly  in  the  line  of  electricity,  magnetism 
and  meteorology.     He  was  director  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 

Henry,  Patrick  (May  29,  1736— June  6,  1799),  was  horn  in  Hanover 
County,  Va.  He  failed  in  fanning  and  trading,  and  started  his  career 
as  a  lawyer,  with  somewhat  slender  equipment,  in  1760.  He  attracted 
attention  by  a  noted  speech  in  1763,  and  in  1765  he  entered  the  House 
of  Burgesses  and  uttered  his  famous  arraignment  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
He  was  a  leader  in  organizing  the  committees  of  correspondence,  and 
was  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress.  In  1775  occurred  his 
"  liberty  or  death  "  speech,  and  he  was  active  in  the  beginning  of  hos- 
tilities as  a  colonel  and  commander  of  Virginia  troops.  He  took  the 
lead  in  organizing  the  Virginia  State  Government,  and  was  its  first 
Governor,  being  elected  in  1776,  1777  and  1778,  and  in  1784  and  1785. 
His  jealousy  of  State  privileges  and  devotion  to  democracy  led  him  to 
oppose  the  Federal  Constitution  of  1787.  He  was  the  Anti-Federalist 
leader  in  the  State,  and  was  prominent  in  the  ratifying  convention  of 
1788.  For  a  short  time,  1 794-1 795,  he  was  U.  S.  Senator,  was  finally  a 
Federalist,  and  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legis- 
lature. Patrick  Henry  was  noted  for  eloquence,  but  did  not  in 
constructive  statesmanship  compare  with  some  of  the  other  great 
Virginians.  His  life  has  been  recently  written  by  William  Wirt 
Henry. 

Henry,  Fort,  Tenn.,  captured  February  8,  1862,  by  the  Federals, 
Commodore  Foote  and  General  Grant,  commanding  seven  Union  gun- 
boats and  a  land  force  of  17,000.  Fort  Henry  and  FortHeiman,  a  neigh- 
boring Confederate  stronghold,  were  held  by  General  Tilghman  with 
2,734  men.  Heiman  was  early  abandoned.  Foote  was  to  reduce  Fort 
Henry  and  Grant  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  garrison.  The  Union 
gunboats  commenced  firing  at  six  thousand  yards,  gradually  nearing 
the  fort.  Tilghman  held  out  bravely,  but  the  bursting  of  a  twenty- 
four-pounder  gun,  wounding  many  of  his  men,  forced  him  to  surrender 
his  staff  and  himself.  By  his  orders  Colonel  Heiman  had  been  directed 
to  attempt  a  retreat  with  the  main  body  of  the  garrison.  This  move 
was  accomplished  through  Grant's  late  arrival,  owing  to  recent  floods. 


328  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Henshaw,  David  (1791-1852),  a  Massachusetts  Senator  in  1826,  and 
a  Representative  in  1839,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy  by 
President  Tyler,  but,  being  soon  afterward  rejected  by  the  Senate, 
served  only  from  1843  to  1844. 

Hepburn  vs.  Griswold,  one  of  the  "legal-tender  cases"  in  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  decided  1864.  In  i860  Mrs.  Hepburn  promised  to 
pay  Griswold  on  February  20,  1862,  $11,250,  legal  tender  at  that  time 
(i860)  being  gold  and  silver  only.  In  1862,  during  the  Civil  War,  the 
United  States  issued  $150,000,000  of  its  own  notes  to  be  received  as 
lawful  money  in  payment  of  public  and  private  debts  within  the  United 
States.  Mrs.  Hepburn's  note  being  overdue,  suit  was  brought  by  Gris- 
wold in  the  Court  of  Chancery  of  Kentucky  in  1864.  Mrs.  Hepburn 
tendered  United  States  notes  in  payment,  which  were  refused,  though 
the  court  declared  the  debt  absolved.  The  Court  of  Appeals  reversed 
this  judgment,  and,  it  being  brought  to  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  that 
body  confirmed  the  judgment  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Kentucky,  on 
the  ground  that  the  Act  of  1862  was  not  intended  to  impair  contracts 
made  prior  to  its  passage.  This  decision  was  reversed  in  Knox  vs.  Lee 
and  Julliard  vs.  Greenmau. 

Herbert,  Hilary  A.,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1834,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  army  as  a  captain, 
and  was  promoted  colonel.  He  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  the  Wil- 
derness in  1864.  He  represented  Alabama  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  from  1877  to  1893,  when  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  the 
Cabinet  of  President  Cleveland. 

Herkimer,  Nicholas  (1715-1777),  was  appointed  a  colonel  of  mili- 
tia in  1758,  and  commanded  at  Fort  Herkimer  against  the  French  and 
Indians.  He  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  militia  by  the  State 
Convention  in  1776,  and  marched  against  Sir  John  Johnson's  force  of 
Tories  and  Indians.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Oriskany  in  an  expe- 
dition for  the  relief  of  Fort  Stanwix,  which  was  besieged  by  St.  Leger 
in  1777. 

Hermitage,  the  home  of  Andrew  Jackson,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  to 
which  he  moved  from  Hunter's  Hill  about  1804.  The  house  in  which 
he  lived  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  was  not  built  until 
1819. 

Herndon,  William  I,.  (1813-1857),  entered  the  navy  in  1828,  ex- 
plored the  Amazon  for  the  U.  S.  Government  in  185 1  and  1852,  and 
bravely  died  while  aiding  passengers  on  the  sinking  mail  steamer, 
"  Central  America." 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  329 

Herrera,  Jose' Joaquin  (1792-1854),  became  president  of  Mexico 
in  1845,  but  was  deposed  for  favoring  the  independence  of  Texas.  He 
was  second  in  command  during  the  war  with  the  United  States.  He 
was  again  president  from  1848  to  1851. 

Hessians.  Early  in  1776,  the  British  Government  made  treaties 
with  various  German  petty  princes,  by  which  it  obtained  mercenaries 
for  the  war  in  America.  Under  these  treaties,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  sent  17,000  troops,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  6,000,  the  Count  of 
Hesse-Hanau  2,400,  the  Margrave  of  Anspach  2,400,  the  Prince  of  Wal- 
deck  and  the  Prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst  about  1,000  each.  In  all,  England 
paid  the  princes  about  ,£"1,800,000.  The  Hessians  on  the  whole  fought 
well.  Some  of  them  settled  in  this  country  and  Nova  Scotia.  About 
17,000  returned  to  Germany. 

Hewitt,  Abram  S.,  born  in  1822,  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  from  1874  to  1886,  except  one  term,  and  advocated  a  mod- 
erate tariff  and  honest  money.  He  was  one  of  the  scientific  commis- 
sioners sent  by  the  United  States  to  the  French  Exposition  of  1867.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  Democratic  National  Committee  in  1876.  He  was 
chosen  mayor  of  New  York  City  in  1886,  and  served  one  term. 

Hickey  Plot,  a  conspiracy  in  1776  to  assassinate  General  Washington 
at  New  York.  Thomas  Hickey,  one  of  the  general's  life  guards,  was 
the  ringleader.  He  was  hanged  in  June,  1776.  David  Matthews,  mayor 
of  New  York,  was  implicated,  and  Governor  Tryon  was  suspected. 
Matthews  was  imprisoned. 

Hickory,  Old,  a  nickname  given  to  General  Jackson,  on  account  of 
his  toughness  and  powers  of  resistance. 

Hicks,  BHas  (1748- 1830),  a  celebrated  preacher  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  a  vicarious  atonement,  there- 
by causing  a  division  of  the  Society  into  Orthodox  and  "Hicksite" 
Quakers. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  was  born  in  1823.  He  was 
early  identified  with  the  anti-slavery  cause.  He  left  the  ministry  in 
1858,  and  has  since  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  enlisted  in  the 
Civil  War  in  1862,  was  made  colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  colored 
troops,  and  captured  Jacksonville.  He  was  a  Massachusetts  Congress- 
man in  1880  and  1881.  He  is  an  earnest  advocate  of  woman  suffrage. 
He  has  contributed  largely  to  current  literature,  and  has  published  two 
histories  of  the  United  States. 

"  Higher  T^aw."  During  the  controversy  in  Congress,  in  1850,  over 


330  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  or  slave  State,  Senator  Seward,  of 
New  York,  representing  the  Free-Soil  Whigs,  declared  the  common  do- 
main devoted  to  justice  and  liberty,  not  only  by  the  Constitution,  but  by  a 
"  higher  law  than  the  Constitution,"  and  that  California  must  be  ad- 
mitted with  no  compromise. 

Highlanders.  After  the  troubles  of  1715  and  1745  bodies  of  High- 
landers came  to  the  colonies  and  settled  in  the  back  districts  of  South 
Carolina  as  Indian  traders  and  farmers.  When  Oglethorpe  came  over 
in  1733  with  his  letters  patent  for  the  district  afterward  called  Georgia, 
he  found  numerous  settlements  of  Highlanders  occupying  portions  of 
his  territory.  They  gave  him  invaluable  aid  in  his  difficulties  with  the 
Spaniards  and  the  unfriendly  Indians.  The  Highlanders  were  opposed 
to  the  introduction  of  negroes. 

Hildreth,  Richard  (1807-1865),  in  1832  became  associate  editor  of 
the  Boston  Atlas,  which  attained  considerable  eminence  as  a  daily  Whig 
journal.  In  1837  he  published  articles  opposing  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  and  while  residing  in  the  South  published  the  anti-slavery  novel, 
"  Archy  Moore,"  republished  as  "  The  White  Slave."  In  1840  he  pub- 
lished "  Despotism  in  America,"  in  1843  a  "Theory  of  Politics,"  and  in 
1854  "The  Legal  Basis  of  Slavery."  He  is  most  prominent  as  author  of 
a  history  of  the  United  States  in  six  volumes,  which  is  brought  down  to 
the  close  of  Monroe's  first  term,  and  is  of  excellent  quality,  though  of 
warm  Federalist  sympathies. 

Hill,  Ambrose  P.  (1825-1865),  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  in  1847  and  served  during  the  Mexican  War.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  in  the  Virginia  volunteers 
and  fought  at  Bull  Run.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general  for  bravery 
and  commanded  at  Williamsburg,  and  was  afterward  promoted  major- 
general.  He  took  a  prominent  and  aggressive  part  in  the  battles  around 
Richmond,  had  important  commands  at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg  and 
Chancellors ville,  and  was  bre vetted  lieutenant-general.  He  led  a  corps 
at  Gettysburg,  and  met  his  death  in  defense  of  Petersburg. 

Hill,  Benjamin  Harvey  (1823-1882),  born  in  Georgia,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1845.  He  was  elected  to  the  Georgia  House  of  Represent- 
atives in  1 85 1,  1859  and  i860.  He  was  a  Unionist  member  of  the  State 
secession  convention  and  strenuously  opposed  the  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion, but  after  its  passage  supported  the  Confederacy.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate from  Georgia  to  the  Confederate  provisional  Congress,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Confederate  Senate  till  1865.  He  published  "  Notes  on 
the  Situation, ' '  ably  opposing  the  reconstruction  measures.    He  earnestly 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


331 


supported  Horace  Greeley  for  the  Presidency  in  1872.  He  served  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  from  1875  to  1877,  and  on  the  Electoral  Commission,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1877  to  1882. 

Hill,  David  B.,  politician,  born  in  1843,  was  a  member  of  the  New 
York  Assembly  in  1871  and  1872.  He  was  president  of  the  Democratic 
State  Conventions  of  1877  and  1881.  He  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
New  York  in  1882,  and  Governor  from  1885  to  1891.  He  was  in  1891 
elected  U.  S.  Senator  for  the  term  expiring  in  1897. 

Hill,  Daniel  H.  (1821-1889),  general,  was  born  in  South  Carolina. 
He  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1842.  He  was  bre vetted  major 
for  gallant  service  at  Chapul tepee  during  the  Mexican  War.  He  enlisted 
in  the  Confederate  service  in  1861,  gained  a  victory  at  Big  Bethel,  and 
was  promoted  major-general  in  1862.  He  gained  distinction  in  the 
"Seven  Days'  "  battles  about  Richmond  and  at  Boonesboro  and  Fred- 
ericksburg. Pie  commanded  in  North  Carolina  and  at  Richmond  and 
Petersburg.     He  was  engaged  at  Chickamauga,  and  surrendered  in  1865. 

Hilliard,  Henry  W.,  was  born  in  1808,  author  of  the  "Junius 
Brutus"  papers,  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1845 
to  185 1.  He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army.  He 
was  Minister  to  Brazil  from  1877  to  1881. 

Hillsboro,  N.  C,  an  encampment  of  Sherman's  Federal  army  of 
85,000  men  in  1865,  during  his  pursuit  of  Johnston's  Confederate  troops 
45,000  strong.  April  14,  Sherman  ordered  his  army  to  move  from  Hills- 
boro, which  is  near  Raleigh,  to  cut  off  Johnston's  retreat  toward  Char- 
lotte. As  this  movement  was  about  to  be  begun  Johnston  sent  to  nego- 
tiate a  surrender  by  conditional  treaty  for  all  Confederates  under  arms. 
This  treaty  was  drawn  up  April  18. 

Hindman,  Thomas  C.  (1818-1868),  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Mexi- 
can War.  He  represented  Mississippi  in  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from 
1858  to  1861.  He  was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Western  Confederate 
army,  and  became  major-general.  He  was  assassinated  for  having  ex- 
acted too  severe  discipline. 

Hindoos,  a  nickname  applied  to  the  Know-Nothing  party  in  conse- 
quence of  their  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  Daniel  Ullman,  who  Was 
alleged  to  have  been  a  native  of  Calcutta. 

Hiscock,  Frank,  Senator,  born  in  1834,  was  a  New  York  District 
Attorney  from  i860  to  1863.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1877  to 
1886,  when  he  became  a  U.  S.  Senator  for  the  term  ending  in  1893. 

Hitchcock,  Ethan  Allen,  born  in  1835,  successful  business  man, 


332  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Ambassador  to  Russia  in  1897,  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  1898,  un-er 
McKinley. 

Hoar,  Bbenezer  R.,  born  in  1816,  was  a  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Com- 
mon Pleas  of  Massachusetts  from  1849  to  ^55  and  of  the  Massachusetts 
Supreme  Court  from  1859  to  1869.  He  was  Attorney-General  of  the 
United  States  from  1869  to  1870  in  Grant's  Cabinet.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  which  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Washington.  He 
represented  Massachusetts  as  a  Republican  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from 
1873  to  1875.     Died  1895. 

Hoar,  George  F.,  born  in  1826,  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature  in  1852  and  1857.  He  represented  Massachusetts  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1869  to  1877,  and  in  the  Senate 
from  1877  to  the  present  time  (1897).-  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Repub- 
lican National  Conventions  of  1876,  1880,  1884  and  1888.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Electoral  Commission  in  1877.  Elected  to  the  U.  S. 
Senate  1896,  he  became  an  ardent  opponent  to  the  Administration  policy 
of  expansion  and  the  war  against  the  Filipinos. 

Hobart,  Augustus  C.  (Hobart  Pasha)  (1822-1886),  entered  the 
British  navy  in  1836.  During  the  Civil  War  he  commanded  the  '  •  Don, ' ' 
a  successful  blockade  runner  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  He  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  war  of  Turkey  against 
Russia  in  1877. 

Hobart,  Garret  A.,  lawyer  ;  born  1844  in  New  Jersey.  Served  in 
State  Legislature.  Was  speaker  of  House  and  president  of  Senate. 
Elected  Vice-President  November  3,  1896.     Died  1899. 

Hobkirk's  Hill,  Battle  of,  April  25,  1781.  Greene,  being  unable 
to  assault  or  invest  Camden,  S.  C,  took  his  position  ten  miles  north  at 
Hobkirk's  Hill.  Here  Lord  Rawdon  attacked  him.  Greene  had  nearly 
won  when  victory  slipped  from  his  grasp.  The  famous  Maryland  brig- 
ade fell  into  disorder  through  misunderstanding  of  orders  and  deranged 
Greene's  plan.     He  was  driven  from  his  post  and  forced  to  retire. 

Hobson,  Richmond  Pearson,  the  "  Hero  of  the  Merrimac,"  born 
in  Alabama,  1870.  As  naval  constructor  planned  the  sinking  of  the  col- 
lier "  Merrimac  "  across  inlet  to  Santiago  harbor,  which  he  accom- 
plished June  3,  1898,  with  seven  volunteer  assistants.  In  October,  1899, 
he  was  sent  to  Manila,  where  he  raised  two  of  the  Spanish  men-of-war 
sunk  by  Dewey  in  the  naval  engagement  of  May  I,  1898. 

Hoe,   Richard  M.    (18T2-1886),  born  in   New  York,  invented  a 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  333 

rotary  press  known  as  "Hoe's  lightning  press,"  which  in  one  minute 
will  print,  cut  and  fold  a  sheet  of  paper  800  feet  long. 

Holden,  William  W.,  born  in  1818,  edited  the  Raleigh  Standard 
from  1843  to  J868.  He  signed  the  ordinance  of  secession  in  1861. 
While  Governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1868  he  was  prominent  in  sup- 
pressing the  Ku-Klux  outrages. 

Holland,  Josiah  G.  (1819-1881),  an  editor  of  the  Massachusetts 
Republican  from  1849  to  1866,  published  a  •'  History  of  Western  Mas- 
sachusetts "  and  a  "Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln,"  and  several  poems, 
"  Katrina, "  "  Bitter  Sweet,"  etc.  In  1870  he  established  Scribner's 
Monthly, 

Hollins,  George  N.  (1 799-1878),  naval  officer,  served  in  the  Alge- 
rian War  in  1815.  By  his  unauthorized  bombardment  of  Nicaragua  in 
1855  he  nearly  involved  the  United  States  in  difficulties  with  Great 
Britain.  A  Confederate  naval  officer  during  the  Civil  War,  he  com- 
manded the  naval  forces  below  New  Orleans  which  Farragut  defeated 
in  April,  1863. 

Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  held  by  the  Federals  under  Colonel  Murphy 
as  General  Grant's  hospital  and  depot  of  supplies.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Confederate  leader,  Van  Dorn,  December  20,  1862,  and  the  entire 
store  of  ordnance  and  medical  supplies,  besides  100  barrels  of  gunpowder, 
was  destroyed.  Grant  had  telegraphed  Murphy  to  fortify  his  position 
and  hold  out  until  he  could  send  reinforcements,  but  the  latter  was 
forced  to  yield.   ' 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1809,  is  an 
eminent  physician,  but  is  famed  chiefly  in  literature.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  in  1857.  In  this  periodical  ap- 
peared his  "  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,"  "  Professor  at  the  Break- 
fast Table,"  "  Elsie  Venner,"  etc.  He  has  written  many  most  popular 
poems,  and  is  author  of  memoirs  of  John  Lothrop  Motley  and  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson.     Died  October  7,  1894. 

Holmes,  Theophilus  H.  (1804-1880),  was  brevetted  major  for 
services  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  organized  the  North  Carolina  troops 
in  1 86 1,  and  commanded  in  the  Confederate  army  in  Northern  Virginia 
and  in  the  Trans-Mississippi  Department. 

Holmes  vs.  Walton,  New  Jersey.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  instance  of  an  American  court's  assuming  the  authority  to  pro- 
nounce upon  the  constitutionality  of  an  act  of  the  Legislature.  The 
Legislature  of  New  Jersey  had,  in  1779,  passed  an  act  making  law- 


334  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ful  a  trial  before  a  jury  of  six  men.  In  the  case  of  Holmes  vs.  Walton 
the  constitutionality  of  this  act  was  questioned,  and  upon  its  being 
decided  unconstitutional  by  the  Court  of  Appeals,  the  act  was  repealed 
and  a  constitutional  jury  of  twelve  men  substituted. 

Holt,  Joseph,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1807,  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Buchanan  Commissioner  of  Patents  in  1857,  and  Postmaster- Gen- 
eral in  1859,  and  succeeded  John  B.  Floyd  as  Secretary  of  War  in  i860. 
Although  previously  a  Democrat  he  supported  the  administration  of 
President  Lincoln,  who  appointed  him  judge  advocate  of  the  army.  In 
1865  he  was  brevetted  major-general  U.  S.  A.  for  services  in  bureau  of 
military  justice.     Died  1894. 

Homestead  I/aw,  securing  to  any  citizen  the  right  to  enter  upon 
160  acres  of  unappropriated  lands  at  $1.25  an  acre,  and  after  five  years' 
actual  residence  to  own  it,  was  passed  May  20,  1862.  It  has  proved  of 
immense  value  in  stimulating  the  settlement  of  the  West. 

Homestead  Riots.  On  the  final  refusal  of  the  workingmen's  as- 
sociation to  accept  certain  changes  in  the  wage  scale,  the  proprietors  of 
the  Carnegie  Steel  Mills,  at  Homestead,  Pa.,  closed  the  works  July  1, 
1892.  The  employes  declared  a  strike  about  the  same  time.  A  mob 
prevented  the  sheriff  from  placing  pickets  in  the  mills.  July  6,  a  body  of 
300  Pinkerton  detectives  arrived.  A  bloody  fight  between  these  men 
and  the  strikers  immediately  took  place,  resulting  in  considerable  loss 
on  both  sides.  The  Pinkertons  surrendered.  The  Pennsylvania  militia 
was  then  ordered  out  and  remained  at  Homestead  until  September  to 
protect  the  mills.  Many  of  the  strikers  were  arrested  and  indictments 
were  found  against  them. 

Honduras.  A  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  United 
States  and  Honduras  in  1864.  By  Art.  XIV.  the  United  States  guaran- 
teed the  neutrality  of  an  interoceanic  railway  in  return  for  concessions 
by  Honduras.     A  reciprocity  treaty  was  concluded  in  1892. 

Honey  Springs,  Ind.  Terr.  Here,  July  17,  1863,  General  Blunt 
with  3,000  Federal  troops  destroyed  Cooper's  command  of  6,000  Confed- 
erates. This  force  was  lying  in  wait  for  Blunt,  and  the  latter,  learning 
this,  charged  upon  them. 

Hood,  John  Bell  (1831-1879),  born  in  Kentucky,  graduated  at  the 
U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1853.  He  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  serv- 
ice in  1861,  and  soon  after  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  the  Texas 
brigade.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  for  gallant  service  at  Gaines' 
Mill.  He  served  in  the  Maryland  campaign  and  fought  at  Bull  Run, 
Boonesboro,  Fredericksburg,  Antietam  and  Gettysburg.     He  reinforced 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  335 

General  Bragg  at  Cliickamanga,  and  in  1864  commanded  a  corps  under 
General  Johnston.  He  succeeded  Johnston  in  command  and  attempted 
to  crush  Sherman  in  his  march  to  the  sea,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He 
was  soon  afterward  defeated  by  General  Thomas  at  Franklin  and  at 
Nashville.     He  was  succeeded  by  General  Richard  Taylor. 

Hooker,  Joseph  ( 1814-1879) ,  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1837.  He  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  for  his 
very  gallant  service  during  the  Mexican  War  from  1846  to  1848.  He 
was  appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  the  National  forces  in  1861,  and 
commanded  a  division  in  1862  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was 
brevetted  major-general  for  services  at  York  town,  Williamsburg  and 
Malvern  Hill.  He  had  important  commands  at  South  Mountain,  Antie- 
tam  and  Fredericksburg.  In  1863  he  succeeded  Burnside  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  conducted  the  battle  of  Chancel- 
lorsville,  but,  being  unsuccessful,  was  soon  after  succeeded  by  General 
Meade.  He  was  assigned  command  in  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland, 
and  fought  at  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge.  He  accom- 
panied Sherman  in  his  march  through  Georgia  until  after  the  siege 
of  Atlanta.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  the  regular  army  in 
1865,  and  retired  in  1868. 

Hopkins,  lySek  (i7i8-i8o2«),  of  Rhode  Island,  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  navy  by  the  Continental  Congress  in  1775.  In 
1776,  in  command  of  the  first  colonial  fleet,  he  captured  the  British 
ships  "  Hawke  "  and  "  Bolton."  He  was  retired  in  1777  for  neglect  to 
appear  before  the  Naval  Committee  on  a  charge  of  unnecessary  delays. 

He  afterward  was  prominent  in  Rhode  Island  politics. 

* 

Hopkins,  Johns  (1795-1873),  was  the  founder  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University  at  Baltimore,  which  he  endowed  with  about  13,500,000.  Pie 
also  gave  an  equal  sum  for  the  foundation  of  a  hospital  at  Baltimore. 

Hopkinson,  Joseph  (1 770-1 842),  was  one  of  the  counsel  in  the 
Pennsylvania  insurgents'  trials,  and  defended  Judge  Chase  in  his  impeach- 
ment trials.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Federalist  from  1815  to  1819.  He  was  a  U.  S.  District  Judge  from  1828 
to  1842,  and  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Constitutional  Convention  of 
1837.     He  composed  "  Hail  Columbia," 

"Hornet,"  eighteen  guns,  Captain  Lawrence,  off  Brazil  on  Febru- 
ary 24,  1813,  attacked  the  "Peacock,"  a  British  brig,  eighteen  guns. 
Within  fifteen  minutes  the  "  Peacock  "  was  sinking,  and  struck  her 
colors.  Before  all  the  wounded  could  be  moved  she  sank,  carrying  nine 
British  and  three  American  seamen  with  her.     On  March  23,  1815,  in 


336  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  South  Atlantic,  the  British  brig  "  Penguin,"  of  eighteen  guns, 
challenged  the  "Hornet."  The  battle  lasted  twenty-three  minutes. 
The  "Penguin"  was  boarded  and  captured,  losing  among  others  her 
commander.  After  scuttling  the  prize  the  "  Hornet"  returned  to  the 
United  States.  In  the  latter  part  of  April,  1815,  the  "Hornet"  was 
chased  by  the  "  Cornwallis, "  seventy-four  guns,  and  only  escaped 
capture  by  throwing  overboard  all  its  guns  save  one,  its  anchors,  boats 
and  heavy  stores. 

Horse  Neck,  Conn.  In  February,  1779,  Governor  Tryon,  of  New 
York,  a  Tory,  at  the  head  of  1,500  men,  took  possession  of  the  salt  works 
at  Horse  Neck.  General  Putnam  rallied  the  militia  of  the  country  and 
attacked  Tryon  with  great  spirit,  but  he  was  overmatched  and  outflanked 
by  the  enemy,  and  to  effect  his  escape,  when  about  to  be  overtaken,  he 
spurred  his  horse  down  a  precipice,  a  daring  act  that  not  only  saved 
him  from  capture  but  also  made  him  famous. 

Horse-Shoe  Bend,  Ala.,  a  battle,  March  29,  18 14,  between  Gen- 
eral Andrew  Jackson's  army  of  3,000  whites,  chiefly  Tennessee  militia, 
and  friendly  Cherokee  Indians,  and  700  or  800  Creek  warriors.  The 
Creeks  had  fortified  themselves  in  the  horse-shoe  of  the  Tallapoosa 
River.  Jackson  advanced  his  cannon  to  within  200  yards  of  the  barri- 
cade and  began  firing,  while  the  Cherokee  allies  swam  the  river  and 
attacked  the  Creeks  in  the  rear.  An  assault  was  then  ordered  and  the 
fort  carried,  about  500  Creeks  being  killed,  and  an  equal  number  of 
women  and  children  being  captured. 

Hotchkiss,  Benjamin  B.  (1830- 1885),  was  considered  at  the  time  of 
his  death  the  first  artillery  engineer  in  the  world.  He  invented  among 
others  a  machine  gun  and  a  magazine  rifle. 

Houdon,  Jean  Antoine  (1 740-1828),  French  sculptor,  visited  the 
United  States  in  1785,  and  modeled  the  statue  of  Washington  which  is 
in  the  capitol  at  Richmond  and  is  regarded  as  the  best  likeness  of 
Washington. 

House  of  Representatives,  a  term  first  employed  in  colonial  and 
State  Legislatures  to  denote  the  lower  or  popular  branch.  In  the  Ran- 
dolph plan,  brought  before  the  Convention  of  1787,  the  lower  branch  of 
the  Federal  Legislature  is  called  simply  the  M  first  branch."  The  name 
House  of  Representatives  first  appears  in  the  report  of  the  committee  of 
detail.  (See  arts.  Apportionment,  Slave  Representation,  Previous  Ques- 
tion, Mace,  etc.)  The  House  has  twice  chosen  the  President,  in  1801 
(Jefferson),  and  in  1825  (J.  Q.  Adams).  The  chief  law  regulating  elec- 
tions of  Representatives  was  passed  in  1875. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  337 

Houston,  Samuel  (1793-1863),  enlisted  in  the  U.  S.  army  in  1813, 
and  was  promoted  lieutenant  for  bravery  in  the  Creek  War,  1813-1814. 
He  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from 
1823  to  1827,  and  was  Governor  of  Tennessee  from  1827  to  1829.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Constitutional  Convention  in  1833.  As 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Texan  army  he  secured  the  independence  of 
Texas.  He  was  president  of  Texas  from  1836  to  1838  and  from  1841  to 
18S4,  secured  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States  and  repre- 
sented it  in  Congress  from  1845  to  1859.  He  was  again  chosen  Gov- 
ernor of  Texas  in  1859  and  served  until  he  refused  to  espouse  the  Con- 
federate cause  in  1861. 

Howard,  Jacob  M.  (1805-1871),  was  a  member  of  the  Michigan 
Legislature  in  1838  and  represented  that  State  in  the  U.  S.  Congress 
from  1841  to  1843.  He  drafted  the  first  Republican  platform  in  1854 
and  gave  the  party  its  name.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1862  to 
1871. 

Howard,  John  Uager  (1752- 1827),  colonel,  joined  the  Revolution- 
ary army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and  was  a  captain  under  General 
Mercer  at  White  Plains  in  1776.  He  commanded  as  major  at  German- 
town  and  Monmouth,  fought  at  Camden  in  1780  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, and  won  great  fame  at  Cowpens  in  1781.  He  was 
Governor  of  Maryland  from  1789  to  1792.  In  1796  he  declined  the  port- 
folio of  Secretary  of  War  in  Washington's  Cabinet.  He  was  a  U.S. 
Senator  from  1796  to  1803. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis,  born  in  1830,  was  graduated  from  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  in  1854.  He  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  Maine  regi- 
ment in  1861.  He  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  and  for  his 
gallant  service  was  promoted  brigader-general.  In  1862  he  fought  at 
Fair  Oaks  and  Antietam,  and  was  promoted  major-general.  He  served 
at  Fredericksburg,  Gettysburg,  Iyookout  Mountain  and  Missionary 
Ridge.  In  1863  he  was  assigned  commander  in  the  Army  of  the  Cum- 
berland, and  later  in  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  He  accompanied 
Sherman  in  his  march  to  the  sea,  and  was  present  at  Johnson's  sur- 
render in  1865.  He  was  Commissioner  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  from 
1865  to  1874.  In  1886  he  was  commissioned  major-general,  and  assigned 
to  the  Pacific  Division ;  in  1888  he  was  transferred  to  the  Atlantic 
Division.     Retired  1894. 

Howe,  3$lias  (1819-1867),  born  in  Massachusetts,  was  the  inventor 
of  the  first  successful  sewing-machine,  in  1846.     He  served  as  private  in 
Vol.  V.— 22 


338  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

a  Connecticut  regiment,  which  he  furnished  at  his  own  expense,  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  and  aided  the  government  by  large  loans. 

Howe,  George  A.,  Viscount  (1724-1758),  came  to  America  from 
England  in  command  of  a  regiment  in  1757.  He  was  promoted  briga- 
dier-general and  in  1758  served  under  Commander-in-chief  Abercrombie 
at  Fort  Ticonderoga,  where  he  met  his  death.  He  was  a  very  able  and 
popular  officer  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence  over  his  subordinates. 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,  born  in  1819,  composed  the  "  Battle  Hymn  of 
the  Republic  "  in  1861.  She  is  an  earnest  advocate  of  woman  suffrage 
and  has  been  prominent  in  many  reform  movements. 

Howe,  Richard  (l$arl  Howe)  (1725-1799),  a  British  rear-admiral, 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  naval  forces  in  North  Amer- 
ica in  1776.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Sir  William  Howe,  he 
was  commissioned  to  conciliate  the  colonies,  but  found  this  impossible. 
He  then  took  possession  of  Long  Island  and  New  York  in  1776  and  of 
Philadelphia  in  1777.  In  1778  he  encountered  the  French  fleet,  under 
Count  d'Estaing,  off  the  coast  of  Rhode  Island  ;  both  fleets  were  badly 
shattered  by  a  storm  which  prevented  a  decisive  engagement.  He  re- 
signed his  charge  to  Admiral  Byron  soon  afterward  and  returned  to 
England.  He  published  "  Narrative  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Fleet  " 
in  1780,  vindicating  his  conduct  during  his  command  in  America.  He 
afterward  became  an  admiral,  and  won  the  great  victory  of  June  I,  1794, 
over  the  French. 

Howe,  Robert  (1732-1785),  was  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina 
Assembly  from  1772  to  1773.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Colonial  Con- 
gress in  1774.  He  was  appointed  colonel,  and  aided  in  expelling  Gov- 
ernor Dunmore  from  Virginia.  He  was  excepted  in  Sir  William  Howe's 
proclamation  of  royal  clemency.  He  commanded  the  North  Carolina 
troops  in  the  defense  of  Charleston,  and  fought  at  Savannah.  He  com- 
manded at  West  Point  in  1780. 

Howe,  Samuel  G.  (1801-1876),  founded  a  school  for  the  blind  in 
1832,  subsequently  called  the  Perkins  Institution,  of  which  he  was 
superintendent  till  1876,  and  at  which  Laura  Bridgman  was  educated. 
From  1851  to  1853  he  edited  the  Commonwealth.  When  commissioner 
to  Santo  Domingo  in  1871  he  advocated  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
He  was  author  of  an  "  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Greek  Revolution,"  in 
which  he  had  participated. 

Howe,  Timothy  O.  (1816-1883),  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  Legis- 
lature in  1S45.     From  1850  to  1855  he  was  a  Judge  of  the  Circuit  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  339 

Supreme  Courts  of  Wisconsin.  He  represented  Wisconsin  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1879,  and  served  on  the  Committees 
of  Finance,  Commerce,  Pensions  and  Claims.  He  advocated  the  right 
of  the  National  Government  to  establish  territorial  governments  in  the 
seceded  States.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  International  Monetary  Con- 
ference in  1 88 1.  He  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  in  Arthur's 
Cabinet  in  1881  and  served  until  his  death. 

Howe,  Sir  William  (1729-1814),  served  under  General  Wolfe  at 
Quebec  in  1759.  In  1775  he  succeeded  General  Gage  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  British  forces  in  America.  He  commanded  the  British 
troops  at  Bunker  Hill.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Richard,  he 
defeated  the  colonial  armies  at  Long  Island  and  at  White  Plains  in  1776, 
and  captured  Forts  Washington  and  Lee.  He  defeated  Washington 
at  Brandy  wine  in  1777,  and  entered  Philadelphia.  After  repulsing  the 
American  attack  at  Germantown  he  went  into  winter  quarters  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  was  accused  of  spending  his  time  in  the  pursuit  of  pleas- 
ure. He  was  removed  from  command  in  1778,  and  superseded  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton.  He  was  a  well-educated  general  and  a  favorite  with 
his  officers,  but  unsuccessful  in  strategy  and  incapable  of  managing  a 
large  army.  He  is  described  by  General  Henry  Lee  as  ( '  the  most  in- 
dolent of  mortals,  who  never  took  pains  to  examine  the  merits  or  de- 
merits of  a  cause  in  which  he  was  engaged." 

Howells,  William  Dean,  born  in  Ohio  in  1837,  was  Consul  to 
Venice  from  1861  to  1865.  He  became  an  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly 
in  1866,  and  was  editor-in-chief  from  1872  to  1881.  He  is  perhaps  the 
most  prominent  of  American  novelists.  He  is  an  advocate  of  the 
modern  "  realistic  fiction  "  which  portrays  life  as  it  actually  is.  He 
has  written  lives  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 

Hoxie,  Vinnie  R.,  sculptor,  born  in  1846,  designed  the  marble 
statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  and  modeled 
the  bronze  statue  of  Admiral  Farragut  in  Washington. 

Huamantla,  Mexico.  Here,  October  9,  1847,  General  Santa  Anna 
endeavored  to  cut  off  and  destroy  a  convoy  commanded  by  General 
Lane,  of  the  American  army,  en  route  from  El  Pinal  to  Puebla.  The 
attempt  was  unsuccessful. 

Hubbard,  Samuel  D.  (1799-1855),  represented  Connecticut  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1845  to  1849.  He  was  Postmaster-General 
In  Fillmore'9  Cabinet  from  1852  to  1853. 

Hubbardton,  Battle  of,  July  7,  1777.    The  fugitive  garrison  from 


34<>  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Ticonderoga  was  overtaken  by  Fraser  with  900  men  at  Hubbardton, 
Vt.  He  was  checked  until  Riedesel,  with  1,000  men,  came  up  and  put 
the  Americans  to  flight.     This  was  an  episode  in  Burgoyne's  invasion 

Hudson,  Henry,  was  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  made  two  voyages  under  the  direction  of  the  Muscovy  Company  in 
search  of  a  northwest  passage.  In  the  first  expedition,  made  in  1607, 
he  explored  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  was  the  first  to  suggest  the  exist- 
ence of  an  open  polar  sea.  His  second  voyage  in  1608  was  unsuccessful. 
In  1609  he  commanded  an  expedition  for  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany, After  coasting  along  Labrador  he  sailed  southward,  touching 
at  Newfoundland,  Penobscot  Bay,  Cape  Cod  and  the  Chesapeake.  He 
Bailed  up  the  Hudson  as  far  as  the  present  site  of  Albany.  On  his  last 
voyage  of  1610  he  entered  the  strait  and  bay  which  bear  his  name.  His 
crew  became  mutinous  because  of  severe  hardships  and  set  Hudson 
Adrift  in  a  small  boat.  Nothing  was  ever  heard  from  him  or  his  seven 
companions.  He  wrote  "  Divers  Voyages  and  Northern  Discoveries" 
and  ' '  A  Second  Voyage. ' ' 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  chartered  by  Charles  II.  May  16,  1670, 
i'or  the  "discovery  of  anew  passage  to  the  South  Sea,  and  for  the 
Ending  of  some  trade  for  furs,  minerals  and  other  considerable  com- 
modities." Adopting  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  it 
combined  with  the  Northwest  Company  in  1S21,  and  obtained  a  more 
extensive  charter.  It  was  ever  the  most  formidable  rival  of  the  United 
States  as  a  claimant  of  the  northwest  regions.  Despite  the  treaty  of 
1783,  which  granted  that  territory  to  the  United  States,  the  company 
persisted  in  making  settlements,  and,  being  on  the  disputed  ground,  it 
had  the  advantage  of  our  government.  Every  possible  means  was  em- 
ployed, and  for  a  long  time  successfully,  to  prevent  emigration  from  the 
States.  The  Selkirk  settlement  in  Oregon  was  made  in  1811-12,  and 
later  it  was  decided  to  seize  and  hold  Oregon  by  force,  turning  over 
the  Indians  to  the  Jesuits  and  furnishing  troops  to  protect  the  priests  and 
repel  intruders.  The  boundary  settlement  of  1846  finally  excluded  the 
company. 

Huger,  Isaac  (1742-1797),  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
first  South  Carolina  regiment  in  the  Revolution.  He  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  in  the  U.  S.  army  in  1779,  an^  engaged  in  all  the  im- 
portant battles  of  the  Southern  army.  He  fought  at  Stono,  Savannah, 
Charleston,  Guilford  Court  House  and  Hobkirk's  Hill. 

Huguenots.  The  first  Huguenots  to  settle  in  this  country  were  a 
small  band  who  had  been  induced  to  emigrate  under  the  charter  of  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  34 1 

Carolinas  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Heath  in  1630.  Upon  reaching  Virginia 
means  of  transportation  failed,  so  they  remained  in  that  colony.  The 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  drove  multitudes  from  France. 
Other  parties  came  to  Virginia  about  1700  under  Claude  Philippe  de 
Richebourg.  In  Massachusetts  they  made  a  settlement  at  Oxford  in 
1686,  but  were  massacred  and  driven  away  by  the  Indians.  By  1737 
they  had  become  an  important  element  in  South  Carolina,  where  they 
founded  at  Charleston  the  "  South  Carolina  Society, ' '  a  benevolent  organ- 
ization. They  also  made  early  settlements  in  the  Middle  States,  notably 
New  York. 

Hull,  Isaac  (1773-1843),  born  in  Connecticut,  entered  the  merchant 
marine  in  1784.  In  1798  he  was  commissioned  a  lieutenant  in  the  Amer- 
ican navy.  He  commanded  the  "  Argus  "  in  1804,  and  engaged  in  the 
Barbary  Wars.  In  1806  he  was  commissioned  captain,  and  in  1807  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  "Constitution."  He  was  highly  hon- 
ored for  successfully  evading  an  attack  of  a  superior  British  force  in  181 2. 
Soon  afterward  he  captured  the  British  ship  M  Guerriere  "  with  a  loss  of 
fourteen  men  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  enemy  lost  seventy-nine. 
This  was  the  first  and  most  famous  naval  victory  during  the  war.  He 
afterward  commanded  the  Pacific  and  Mediterranean  squadrons,  and 
served  on  the  Board  of  Naval  Commissioners. 

Hull,  William  (1753-1825),  was  chosen  captain  in  a  Connecticut 
regiment  in  1775.  He  fought  at  White  Plains,  Trenton,  Princeton, 
Saratoga,  Fort  Stanwix  and  Stony  Point.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
major.  From  1805  to  181 2  he  was  Governor  of  Michigan.  In  181 2  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Northwest,  with  headquar- 
ters at  Detroit.  He  regarded  himself  as  compelled  by  superior  forces 
and  by  lack  of  proper  facilities  to  surrender  Detroit  to  the  British.  He 
was  tried  by  court-martial  and  sentenced  to  death,  but  was  reprieved  by 
Madison. 

Humphreys,  Andrew  A.  (1810-1883),  was  assigned  to  the  corps  of 
topographical  engineers  in  1838  and  engaged  in  the  coast  survey.  He 
served  on  the  staff  of  General  McClellan  in  1862.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville  and  a  corps  at  Gettys- 
burg. In  1863  he  became  chief  of  the  staff  of  General  Meade.  He  was 
chief  of  engineers  from  1866  to  1879,  when  he  retired. 

Hunkers.  A  name  applied  originally  to  conservative  Democrats  in 
New  York,  but  also  used  in  other  States.  Though  the  name  was  not  in 
use  until  1844  the  faction  to  which  it  applied  existed  as  early  as  1835. 
The  Hunkers,  in  New  York,  opposed  the  "  loco-foco  "  faction,  the  barn* 


342  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

burners  and  radicals;  and  finally  divided  into  the  "hards'*  and  the 
"  softs."  They  represented  the  inertia  of  the  State  Democratic  party. 
From  1835  to  1840  they  opposed  the  loco-foco  war  on  bank  charters. 
Later  they  opposed  a  revision  of  the  Constitution  and  the  radicals,  and 
were  disinclined  to  oppose  slavery.  The  faction  ceased  to  exist  about 
i860. 

Hunt,  Henry  J.  (1819-1889),  was  prominent  during  the  Mexican 
War.  He  served  on  McClellan's  staff  in  1861,  and  was  chief  of  artillery 
in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  1862  to  1865,  engaging  in  all  its 
battles. 

Hunt,  Thomas  Sterry  (1826-1892),  scientist,  made  valuable  origi- 
nal contributions  to  the  advancement  of  chemical  and  geological  science. 
He  invented  the  ink  with  which  ' '  greenbacks  ' '  were  printed. 

Hunt,  William  H.  (1824-1884),  of  Louisiana,  was  appointed  Judge 
of  the  U.  S.  Court  of  Claims  in  1878.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
Garfield's  Cabinet  from  1881  to  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  Minister 
to  Russia. 

Hunter,  David  (1802-1886),  commanded  the  main  column  of  Mc- 
Dowell's arm y  in  the  Manassas  campaign  in  1861,  and  commanded  a 
division  at  Bull  Run.  He  succeeded  General  Fremont  in  command  of 
the  Western  Department.  He  commanded  the  Department  of  Kansas 
from  1 86 1  to  1862,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  Southern  Depart- 
ment. He  organized  the  first  regiment  of  colored  troops.  In  1864  he 
commanded  the  Department  of  West  Virginia.  He  was  president  of  the 
commission  which  tried  the  assassins  of  President  Lincoln.  He  was 
brevetted  major-general  in  1865  and  retired  from  sen-ice  in  1866. 

Hunter,  Robert  M.  T.  (1809-1887),  served  in  the  Virginia  Legisla- 
ture in  1833.  He  represented  Virginia  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  as  a  Whig  from  1837  to  1843  an^  from  1845  to  1847,  and  was 
Speaker  from  1839  to  1841.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1847  to  1861, 
and  ardently  advocated  all  pro-slavery  legislation.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  provisional  Congress  at  Richmond  in  1S61.  From  1861  to  1862 
he  was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Confederate  Government.  From  1862 
to  1865  he  served  in  the  Confederate  Senate  in  opposition  to  the  admin- 
istration of  Mr.  Davis.  He  was  one  of  the  peace  commissioners  to  con- 
fer with  President  Lincoln  in  1865.  He  was  Treasurer  of  Virginia  from 
1877  to  1880. 

Hunton,  2$ppa,  born  in  1823,  was  commonwealth  attorney  in  Vir- 
ginia from  1849  to  1862.     He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Con- 


AMERICAN    HISTORY.  343 

federate  service.  While  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  1873  to  188 1  he  served 
on  the  Electoral  Commission  as  a  Democrat.  Was  appointed  U.  S. 
Senator  from  Virginia  to  fill  out  the  unexpired  term  caused  by  the  death 
of  John  S.  Barbour. 

Hurons,  a  tribe  of  Indians  formerly  occupying  territory  near  Lake 
Huron.  Among  them  the  French  began  the  famous  Huron  mission  in 
1632.  They  allied  themselves  with  the  Algonquins  against  the  Iroquois, 
which  latter  nation  destroyed  several  of  their  villages,  finally  dispersing 
them  in  1649.     Many  found  their  way  to  Canada. 

Hutchinson,  Anne  (Marbury)  (i6oo?-i643),  came  to  America 
from  England  in  1634.  She  was  expelled  from  the  Massachusetts 
colony  for  preaching  Antinomian  doctrines  and  accusing  the  authorities 
of  being  under  a  "  covenant  of  works."  She  had  won  a  large  following. 
She  founded  Portsmouth,  R.  I.,  on  the  island  of  Aquidneck,  which  she 
purchased  from  the  Indians.  She  was  afterward  murdered  by  the  In- 
dians near  Manhattan,  where  she  settled. 

Hutchinson,  Thomas  (1711-1780),  Governor,  was  a  member  of  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  from  1737  to  1739,  1740,  and  1741  to 
1749.  He  was  Speaker  from  1746  to  1748.  He  restored  a  healthy 
condition  of  trade  by  redeeming  the  depreciated  paper  currency.  In 
1754  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  at  the  Albany  Convention, 
and  aided  in  drafting  a  plan  of  colonial  union.  He  was  appointed 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1 756.  In  1 760  he  was  appointed 
Chief  Justice.  In  1765  his  house  was  sacked  by  a  mob  infuriated  by  the 
notion  that  he  was  a  party  to  the  obnoxious  stamp  acts,  and  his  valu- 
able library  of  historical  pamphlets  and  documents  was  destroyed.  In 
1770  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  of  the  province.  The  report  was 
circulated  that  he  was  largely  responsible  for  the  oppressive  acts  of  the 
Ministry,  and  this  was  intensified  by  Dr.  Franklin's  publication  of  some 
of  Hutchinson's  letters  to  England  which  had  fallen  into  his  hands.  In 
1774  he  sailed  to  England  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  was  a  conscientious  and  high-minded  Tory.  He  wrote  a  valuable 
history  of  Massachusetts. 


344  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 


I. 

Iberville,  Pierre  le  Moyne  &'  (1661-1706),  engaged  in  the  Cana- 
dian expedition  against  the  English  forts  on  the  Hudson,  fought  at 
Fort  Mousipi  and  Fort  Quitchilchouen,  and  in  1688  captured  two  Eng- 
lish vessels.  In  1690  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  against  Schenectady.  In 
1694  he  took  Fort  Nelson,  and,  in  command  of  a  frigate,  captured  three 
English  ships,  including  the  "  Newport. "  He  destroyed  Fort  Pema- 
quid,  and  reduced  nearly  all  Newfoundland.  In  command  of  the 
"Pelican,"  in  1697,  he  destroyed  several  British  ships,  and  captured 
Fort  Bourbon.  In  1698  he  ascended  the  Mississippi  and  built  Fort 
Biloxi,  the  first  port  on  the  river.  In  1701  he  transferred  the  colony  to 
Mobile.     In  1706  he  captured  Nevis  Island. 

Icaria,  a  communistic  settlement  founded  in  1856,  in  Iowa,  by  the 
followers  of  the  Frenchman  I^tienne  Cabet.  The  latter,  in  1848,  had 
persuaded  a  number  of  persons  to  settle  with  him  in  the  Red  River 
country  of  Texas.  This  colony  failed  because  of  Cabet's  extravagant 
ideas.  In  1850  the  colony  moved  to  Nauvoo  in  Illinois,  a  deserted  vil- 
lage of  the  Mormons.  Thence  they  moved  again  in  1856  (Cabet  dying 
that  same  year  at  New  Orleans)  to  Corning,  Iowa,  calling  it  the  Icaria 
Commune,  in  reminiscence  of  Cabet's  book,  "  Icarie."  Most  of  the 
people,  less  than  100  in  all,  are  French,  though  there  are  a  few  Ger- 
mans. 

Idaho,  a  State,  was  formed  from  the  Louisiana  cession.  It  was 
organized  as  a  part  of  Oregon  for  a  time,  and  later  was  joined  to  Wash- 
ington. It  was  given  a  territorial  government  of  its  own  in  1863,  and 
was  admitted  as  a  State  July  3,  1890.  The  population  in  1890  was  84,- 
385.  Suffrage  is  denied  to  Mormons.  The  Republicans  control  the 
State.  In  1892  the  Cceur  d'Aldne  riots,  caused  by  a  strike  of  the  miners, 
were  suppressed  by  U.  S.  troops. 

Illinois,  a  State  of  the  American  Republic,  was  formed  from  the 
Northwest  Territory,  which  was  organized  in  1787.  The  State  was 
originally  a  possession  of  France,  who  surrendered  her  claims  to  Eng- 
land in  1763.  The  first  settlement  was  a  mission  at  Kaskaskia,  founded 
by  Marquette  in  1675.  In  1679  La  Salle  built  Fort  Crevecceur,  and  in 
1682  established  a  colony  at  Cahokia,  and  in  1700  Kaskaskia  was 
founded.  George  Rogers  Clark,  with  a  Virginia  force,  seized  Cahokia 
and  Kaskaskia  in  1778,  and  Illinois  was  made  a  county  of  Virginia. 


y 

AMERICAN  HISTORY.  345 

March  1,  1784,  Virginia  surrendered  her  claim  over  Illinois  to  the 
United  States.  In  1809  it  was  erected  into  a  territory  comprising  the 
present  States  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  part  of  Michigan.  December 
3,  1818,  Illinois  with  its  present  boundaries  became  a  State.  The  Black 
Hawk  War  broke  out  in  1832.  Rev.  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy  was  murdered 
by  a  mob  at  Alton  because  of  his  attempt  to  publish  an  anti-slavery 
newspaper  in  1837.  From  1840  to  1844  the  Mormons  caused  excitement 
which  led  to  the  death  at  the  hands  of  a  mob  of  two  of  their  leaders  and 
the  emigration  of  the  sect  from  the  State.  The  southern  part  of  the 
State  has  usually  been  Democratic,  the  northern  part  Anti-Democratic. 
Down  to  i860  the  vote  of  Illinois  was  invariably  Democratic  in  Presi- 
dential elections.  Including  and  since  that  time  it  has  been  Republi- 
can until  1892,  when  it  was  Democratic.  In  1858  Lincoln  and  Douglas 
canvassed  the  State  together  for  election  to  the  U.  S.  Senate.  Douglas 
won.  In  1877  David  Davis,  an  Independent,  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
by  Democrats  and  Independents.  The  present  Constitution  was  made 
in  1870.  The  population  of  Illinois  in  1818  was  34,620,  in  1890  it  was 
3,826,351. 

Impeachments.  There  have  been  seven  impeachments  made  by 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  During  the  session  of  1797-98,  Will- 
iam Blount,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Tennessee,  was  impeached  by  the 
House  and  tried  by  the  Senate  for  treasonable  negotiations  with  Great 
Britain  for  the  transfer  of  New  Orleans.  He  was  acquitted  for  want  of 
jurisdiction.  March  3,  1803,  Judge  John  Pickering,  of  the  Federal 
Court  of  New  Hampshire,  was  impeached  and  removed  from  the  bench 
for  drunkenness  and  profanity.  November  30,  1804,  Judge  Samuel 
Chase,  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  was  impeached  for  arbitrary  con- 
duct and  the  introduction  of  political  disquisitions  in  his  charges  to 
grand  juries.  He  was  not  removed.  December,  13,  1804,  Judge  James 
Peck,  of  the  Federal  Court  of  Missouri,  was  impeached  for  punishing 
as  contempt  of  court  a  criticism  of  his  opinions.  He  was  acquitted. 
December  29,  i860,  Judge  West  H.  Humphreys,  of  the  Federal  District 
Court  of  Tennessee,  was  impeached  and  removed  from  the  bench  for 
aiding  the  Rebellion.  November  25,  1867,  the  House  impeached  Presi- 
dent Andrew  Johnson,  charging  him  with  having  removed  Stanton, 
Secretary  of  War,  in  violation  of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  with  having 
appointed  General  L.  Thomas  contrary  to  the  same  act,  with  conspiracy 
with  Thomas  and  others  for  the  intimidation  of  Stanton  and  the  unlaw- 
ful disbursement  of  the  War  Department's  moneys,  and  with  inducing 
General  Emory,  commanding  the  Department  of  Washington,  to  dis- 
obey orders.  The  House  adopted  the  resolution  of  impeachment  by  a 
vote  of  126  to  42.    After  the  trial  before  the  Senate,  the  vote  stood  33 


346  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

to  19.  The  necessary  two-thirds  were  not  secured.  But  the  Senate  ad- 
journed sine  die,  without  voting  upon  some  of  the  articles  of  charge. 
Hence  the  Chief  Justice  entered  a  verdict  of  acquittal  on  the  record. 
March  2,  1876,  William  W.  Belknap,  Secretary  of  War,  was  impeached 
on  the  charge  of  bribery  for  appointments.     He  was  acquitted. 

"  Impending  Crisis,"  a  book  by  H.  R.  Helper,  of  North  Carolina, 
appearing  in  1857.  It  earnestly  opposed  slavery  on  economical  grounds. 
The  book  was  used  as  a  campaign  document  by  the  Republican  party 
in  j86o,  and  140,000  copies  were  sold  between  1857  and  1861.  Helper 
purported  to  represent  the  sentiments  of  Southern  non-slaveholding 
whites. 

Imperialism,  see  appendix,  page  485. 

Imports.  The  specie  value  of  the  imports  from  foreign  countries  in 
1791  was  129.200,000.  In  1807,  just  before  the  embargo,  it  was  $138,- 
500,000.  By  1814  it  had  sunk  to  only  $13, 000,000,  but  rose  to  $147,000,- 
000  in  1816.  Reduced  by  the  tariff  act  of  that  year,  it  again  rose  to 
$190,000,000  in  1836,  just  before  the  crash  of  1837.  In  1857  it  was $361,- 
000,000;  in  1867,  $418,000,000;  in  1877,  $492,000,000;  in  1887,  $752,- 
000,000 ;  in  1892,  $897,000,000.     In  1900  the  value  exceeded  $100,000,000. 

Impressment.  For  many  years  prior  to  the  breaking  out  of  the 
War  of  1 81 2  the  British  Government  claimed  the  right  of  stopping  and 
searching  American  vessels,  and  impressing  into  the  British  service 
British  seamen  who  happened  to  be  serving  under  the  American  flag. 
Great  Britain  refused  to  allow  the  right  of  expatriation  and  change  of 
allegiance  by  naturalization.  She  was  then  engaged  in  war  with  France, 
and  accordingly  claimed  the  services  of  all  her  maritime  citizens,  no 
matter  what  ceremonies  of  naturalization  they  might  have  undergone 
abroad.  Hence  many  American  sailors  were  willfully  impressed.  This 
grievance  aided  in  a  large  measure  in  bringing  about  the  embargo  sys- 
tem and  the  War  of  1812. 

Income  Tax.  But  one  income  tax  has  been  imposed  by  the  Federal 
Government,  and  it  arose  from  the  necessities  of  the  government  in- 
cident to  the  Rebellion.  August  5,  1861,  Congress  authorized  a  tax  of 
three  per  cent,  on  all  incomes  over  $800  per  annum.  In  July,  1862,  an 
act  was  passed  taxing  all  incomes  under  $5,000  five  per  cent.,  with  an 
exemption  of  $600  and  house-rent  actually  paid.  Incomes  in  excess  of 
$5,000  and  under  $10,000  were  taxed  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  addi- 
tional, and  incomes  over  $10,000  five  per  cent,  additional  with  no  ex- 
emptions. Further  taxes  of  five  per  cent,  on  incomes  of  Americans 
living  abroad  and  of  one  and  one-half  per  cent,  on  incomes  from  United 
States  securities  were  laid,  these  expiring  in  1865.     In  1864  a  special  tax 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  347 

of  five  per  cent.  wa9  imposed  on  incomes  above  $600.  A  readjustment 
the  same  year  imposed  a  five  per  cent,  tax  on  incomes  between  $600 
and  $5,000  ;  ten  per  cent,  on  incomes  above  $5,000.  During  President 
Cleveland's  second  administration  a  bill  was  passed  and  received  the 
Executive's  signature  imposing  a  tax  upon  all  incomes  above  $4,000. 
This  tax  was  fiercely  resisted  and  the  constitutionality  of  the  law  was 
tested  before  the  Supreme  Court,  which  after  a  protracted  hearing 
decided  adversely  by  a  majority  of  one.  A  strong  dissenting  opinion  of 
the  minority  was  submitted. 

Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  scene  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, July  4,  1776.  The  hall  was  begun  in  1732  and  completed  in 
1741.  J.  Kearsely  was  the  architect,  and  B.  Wooley  the  builder.  It 
was  first  occupied  as  the  Pennsylvania  State  House  in  October,  1735. 
The  tower  was  built  in  1750.  The  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787 
also  met  here. 

Independent  Treasury.  Until  1840  the  United  States  Government 
had  never  ventured  to  assume  entire  control  of  its  own  funds,  depend- 
ing in  a  great  measure  upon  the  two  successive  banks  of  the  United 
States,  and  various  State  banks  selected  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
for  depositories.  The  creation  of  an  independent  or  sub-treasury  S3rs- 
tem  was  an  outcome  of  the  panic  of  1837.  President  Van  Buren's  mes- 
sage to  Congress  that  year  strongly  recommended  such  a  system.  Silas 
Wright,  of  New  York,  submitted  a  sub-treasury  bill,  which  prohibited 
Government  agents  from  receiving  anything  but  gold  and  silver. 
Finally,  in  1840,  the  bill  became  a  law,  and  sub-treasuries  were  created 
at  New  York,  Boston,  Charleston  and  St.  Louis,  the  mint  at  Philadelphia 
and  the  branch  mint  at  New  Orleans  being  also  made  places  of  deposit. 
The  Whigs  and  some  Democrats  were  violently  opposed  to  this  system , 
and  effected  its  repeal  in  1841  in  favor  of  the  national  banking  system. 
It  again  became  a  law  in  1846  under  Polk,  and  has  continued  since. 

Independents,  in  recent  politics,  men  independent  of  both  the 
Republican  and  the  Democratic  parties ;  more  especially'  applied  in 
1884  to  those  Republicans  who  "  bolted  "  the  nomination  of  Blaine. 

Indian  Affairs,  Commissioner  of.  In  1832  Congress  authorized 
the  President  to  appoint  a  commissioner  who,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  should  have  general  superintendence  of  all  Indian 
affairs.  These  affairs  had  formerly  been  managed  by  War  Department 
clerks.  Since  1849  tn*s  commissioner  has  been  under  the  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 

Indian  Bible.     In  1661  John  Eliot,  an  English  missionary  among 


348  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

the  Massachusetts  Indians,  published  through  the  Cambridge  Press  the 
first  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  which  he  had  translated  into  the 
Indian  dialect.  The  whole  Bible  appeared  three  years  later,  and  sec- 
ond editions  of  both  were  published,  the  former  in  1680,  the  latter  in 
1685.  Eliot  was  assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  second  edition  by 
John  Cotton,  of  Plymouth,  son  of  the  Boston  minister.  Eliot  drew 
from  the  Scriptures  a  frame  of  government  for  the  commonwealth  and 
for  the  Indians,  but  these  were  suppressed  as  reflecting  on  the  kingly 
government.  Eliot's  "  Indian  Bible  "  is  now  one  of  the  most  valued  of 
rarities. 

Indian  Territory  is  a  portion  of  the  public  land  of  the  United 
States  which  has  been  set  apart  for  various  tribes  of  Indians  who  have 
been  moved  thither  from  various  portions  of  the  United  States.  Jeffer- 
son first  suggested  such  a  territory,  and  on  June  30,  1834,  an  Act  of 
Congress  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  Indians  all  the  country  west  of  the 
Mississippi  which  was  not  included  within  Missouri,  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas.  This  has  been  diminished  by  the  organization  of  various 
States  and  Territories,  so  that  at  present  (1894)  the  area  is  only  about 
25,000  square  miles.  The  principal  tribes  are  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws, 
Creeks  and  Chickasaws.  During  the  Civil  War  many  of  the  tribes  made 
treaties  with  the  Confederate  States.  In  1870  an  attempt  was  made  to 
organize  a  State.  In  1866  the  Indians  agreed  to  grant  the  right  of  way 
through  their  land  to  railroads.  Agents  of  the  United  States  live 
among  the  Indians  and  protect  them  from  encroachments  from  the 
whites.  The  United  States  has  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  in  which  a 
white  man  is  a  party.  Sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  prohibited.  In 
1881-82  attempts  were  made  by  "  boomers  "  from  Kansas  to  force  their 
way  into  the  Territory.  An  Act  of  Congress  of  May  2,  1890,  erected 
the  unoccupied  portion  of  the  Territory  into  a  separate  Territory  to  be 
called  Oklahoma.     The  population  of  the  Territory  is  about  75,000. 

Indiana,  a  State  of  the  Union,  often  called  the  Hoosier  State,  was 
formed  from  the  Northwest  Territory.  The  first  settlement  was  made  at 
Vincennes  in  1702,  by  the  French.  This  place  was  captured  by  Clark 
during  the  American  Revolution.  After  the  erection  of  Ohio  as  a  sepa- 
rate Territory,  the  Northwest  was  called  Indiana,  with  Vincennes  its 
capital.  In  1805  and  1809  the  Territories  of  Michigan  and  Illinois 
were  organized  as  separate  Territories.  November  7,  181 1,  General 
Harrison  defeated  the  Indians  at  Tippecanoe.  December  11,  18 16,  In- 
diana became  a  State.  Slavery  was  forbidden  by  the  Ordinance  of 
1787,  by  which  the  Northwest  was  organized.  Except  in  1836  and  1840 
the  electoral  votes  were  east  for  Democratic  candidates  until  1860,  when 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  349 

Lincoln  carried  the  State,  since  which  date  the  Republicans  have  failed 
in  but  one  Presidential  election,  that  of  1876,  until  1884.  The  Democrats 
have  carried  the  State  in  the  elections  of  1874,  1876,  1878,  1882,  1884, 
1890,  1892.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1851.  Tho  popula- 
tion of  the  State  in  1816  was  63,805  ;  in  1890  k  was  2,192,404. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,  settled  in  1819.  It  became  the  capital  of  the 
State  in  1828,  and  received  a  city  charter  in  1847. 

Indians.  The  Indians  were  so  called  from  the  original  supposition 
made  that  their  land  was  India.  They  were  divided  into  tribes.  In  the 
Northern  part  of  the  United  States  these  tribes  were  either  of  the  Algon- 
quin or  of  the  Iroquois  race  ;  in  the  South,  either  of  that  which  is 
called  Mobilian  or  of  the  Natchez.  Their  tribal  government  was  loose 
and  weak.  They  had  chieftains,  but  these  had  little  real  power.  Con- 
federacies of  tribes  were  sometimes  formed,  but  did  not  usually  last  be- 
yond a  single  war.  The  Indian  was  in  general  in  the  hunting  and  fish- 
ing stage  of  civilization.  His  relations  with  the  settlers  were  more 
frequently  hostile  than  friendly,  which  caused  settlement  to  be  more 
compact  than  in  Spanish-American  regions,  where  the  aborigines  were 
less  warlike.  There  was  also  much  trade  with  the  Indian,  especially  in 
furs.  Likewise  there  was  some  effort  to  convert  the  Indians  to  Chris- 
tianity, though  these  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  English  and  Protestant 
colonies  were  lamentably  small  when  compared  with  the  work  of 
the  French  Jesuits.  On  their  part  the  Indians  learned  something  of 
civilization,  especially  in  the  articles  of  fire-arms  and  fire-water, 

Individualism,  see  appendix,  page  485. 

Ingalls,  John  J.,  born  in  1833,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Wyandotte  Constitutional  Convention  in  1859. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Kansas  Council  in  i860,  Secretary  of  the  State 
Senate  in  1861  and  a  member  in  1862.  He  served  in  theU.  S.  Senate  as 
a  Republican  from  1873  to  1891.    Died  at  Las  Vegas,  August  16,  1900. 

Ingersoll,  Jared  (1749-1822),  was  a  delegate  from  Pennsylvania  to 
the  Continental  Congress  from  1780  to  1781.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  framed  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787.  He  was 
twice  chosen  Attorney-General  of  Pennsylvania  and  was  U.  S.  District 
Attorney  for  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  He  was  defeated  as  Federal  can- 
didate for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  181 2. 

Ingersoll,  Ralph  I.  (1788-1872),  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Connecticut  Legislature  from  1819  to  1825,  a  Democratic  Representative 
to  Congress  from  1825  to  1833,  and  Minister  to  Russia  from  1846  to 
1848. 


350  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  G.,  was  born  in  1833.  He  served  in  the  Civil 
War  as  a  colonel.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  Attorney-General  of 
Illinois.  He  was  counsel  for  the  defense  for  the  "  Star  Route  "  con- 
spirators, who  were  acquitted  in  1883.  He  was  a  popular  orator  and 
acquired  fame  chiefly  through  his  pamphlet  and  lecture  attacks  upon 
the  Christian  religion.     Died  1899. 

Ingham,  Samuel  D.  (1 779-1860),  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1813  to  1818,  and  from  1822  to  1829. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from  1829  to  1831  in  Jackson's  Cabinet. 

Ingraham,  Duncan  N.  (1802-1891),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in 
1812.  While  commander  of  the  "  St.  Louis  "  in  the  Mediterranean,  in 
1853,  ne  secured  the  liberation  of  Martin  Koszta,  a  prospective  Ameri- 
can citizen,  who  had  been  seized  by  Greeks  at  Smyrna  at  the  instigation 
of  Austrian  officials.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  chief  of  ordnance,  con- 
struction and  repair  in  the  Confederate  navy. 

Interior  Department,  created  by  law  in  1849,  and  called  in  the 
title  of  the  act  the  Home  Department.  Its  functions  were  formerly 
distributed  among  the  departments  of  State,  Treasury,  War  and  Navy. 
These  functions  are  the  regulation  of  patents,  copyrights,  the  census, 
public  documents,  public  lands,  mines,  mining,  judicial  accounts,  In- 
dian affairs,  bureau  of  education,  etc. 

Internal  Improvements,  at  Federal  Expense.  The  Consti- 
tution did  not  provide  for  internal  improvements,  hence  they  have  be- 
come a  party  question.  Since  1789  money  has  been  steadily  appro- 
priated by  Congress  for  improvements  lying  strictly  within  Federal 
jurisdiction,  as  for  light-houses,  buoys,  beacons  and  public  piers.  The 
first  actual  appropriation  for  other  internal  improvement  was  in  1806, 
when  a  sum  was  appropriated  for  the  construction  of  the  Cumberland 
Road,  which  should  penetrate  the  Western  States  and  be  the  means  of 
transmitting  emigrants  and  mails  in  time  of  peace,  and  troops  in  time 
of  war.  About  the  same  time  a  road  was  begun  through  Georgia  on  the 
route  to  New  Orleans.  Congress  passed  a  resolution  in  1818,  declaring 
its  power  to  appropriate  money  for  the  construction  of  roads  and  canals, 
and  for  the  improvement  of  water-courses.  March  3,  1823,  the  first  act 
for  harbor  improvement  passed  Congress.  April  13,  1824,  $30,000  was 
appropriated  for  the  survey  of  such  roads  and  canals  as  the  President 
should  deem  of  national  importance,  and  $300,000  was  subscribed  to  the 
stock  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal.  In  May,  1822,  Presi- 
dent Monroe  vetoed  the  Cumberland  Road  Bill,  declaring  that  Congress 
had  no  power  under  the  Constitution  to  carry  out  a  system  of  interna! 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  351 

improvements  at  Federal  expense.  This,  and  Jackson's  veto  of  the 
Maysville  Turnpike  Road  Bill  in  1830,  threw  the  matter  into  the  hands 
of  the  States. 

Internal  Revenue.  The  receipts  from  internal  revenue  steadily 
rose  during  the  period  from  1791  to  1801,  reaching  $1,000,000  in  the 
latter  year.  They  then  declined.to  almost  nothing.  In  the  War  of  181 2 
they  rose  again,  reaching  $5,000,000  in  18 16  ;  and  again  declined  to 
nothing  in  1849  and  the  subsequent  years  to  1862.  Under  the  new 
system  then  inaugurated  they  rose  to  $309,000,000  in  1866,  and  have 
been  above  $100,000,000  in  every  year  since  ($154,000,000  in  1892).  By 
the  imposition  of  taxes  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war  with  Spain  the 
receipts  from  internal  revenue  exceed  $250,000,000,  and  these  still 
remain  in  force. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  a  commission  appointed  by 
Act  of  Congress  February  4,  1887.  It  has  jurisdiction  of  rates  on  inter- 
state traffic,  and  can  inquire  into  the  management  of  the  business  of 
all  common  carriers  subject  to  the  provisions  of  "An  act  to  regulate 
commerce." 

Interstate  Commerce  I^aw.  In  1884  Representative  Reagan,  of 
Texas,  submitted  a  bill  to  the  House  for  the  regulation  of  interstate 
commerce,  and  about  the  same  time  a  similar  bill  was  proposed  in  the 
Senate.  Both  bills  failed.  Thereafter  yearly  debates  took  place  con- 
cerning these  and  similar  bills,  until,  February  4,  1887,  the  Reagan  bill 
was  finally  passed  and  approved.  It  provides  for  the  appointment  of  a 
commission,  consisting  of  five  persons,  who  shall  see  to  it  that  railroad 
and  other  such  companies  establish  and  preserve  a  just  and  uniform 
rate  of  transportation.  This  particularly  affects  such  corporations  as 
control  continuous  lines  from  one  State  to  another,  either  by  land  or  by 
water,  or  both.  The  law  has  been  very  effective  in  preventing  gross 
discriminations  in  charges  for  freight  and  issuing  of  passes. 

Inventions.  The  American  gift  for  invention  is  remarkable,  and 
has  been  much  stimulated  by  our  patent  system.  On  the  whole,  the 
most  important  inventions  may  be  said  to  have  been  :  Whitney's  inven- 
tion of  the  cotton  gin  in  1793  "1  McCormick's  reaper,  patented  in  1834  ; 
the  steam  hammer  in  1838  ;  Goodyear 's  method  of  vulcanizing  rubber 
(1839)  ;  the  telegraph,  brought  into  use  in  1844;  the  sewing  machine 
(1846)  ;  the  power  loom  (1846) ;  the  surgical  use  of  anesthetics  (1846)  ; 
the  rotary  printing  press  (1847)  ;  the  telephone  about  1876,  and  more 
recently  the  phonograph  and  cineometograph. 

Iowa,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  formed  from  the  territory  ob- 


352  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tained  from  France  by  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.  Its  name,  signifying 
the  beautiful  country,  is  derived  from  the  river  of  the  same  name.  The 
first  settlement  in  the  State  was  made  by  Dubuque,  a  Frenchman  from 
Canada,  in  1788,  on  the  site  of  the  city  which  now  bears  his  name. 
After  the  organization  of  Missouri,  in  1820,  the  territory  to  the  north 
was  neglected  by  Congress  until  1834,  when  it  was  made  a  part  of 
Michigan.  In  1836  it  was  added  to  the  Wisconsin  Territory,  and  in 
1838  the  Territory  of  Iowa  was  created.  Application  for  admission  as  a 
Stat^  was  refused  by  Congress  until  December  28,  1846,  when  Iowa  be- 
came a  State.  From  1846  to  1854  the  State  was  solidly  Democratic. 
Since  1854  the  Republicans  have  controlled  the  State  until  the  election 
of  Boies  as  Governor  in  1889.  In  1882  an  amendment  to  the  State  Con- 
stitution prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
was  adopted  by  a  large  popular  majority,  but  was  declared  void  because 
of  informalities  in  its  passage.  The  present  Constitution  was  made  in 
1857.  The  population  of  Iowa  in  1846  was  81,920,  in  1890  it  was  1,911,- 
895- 
Ireland,  John,  Archbishop,  see  appendix,  page  485. 

Iron.  The  first  iron  manufactured  in  the  United  States  was  forged 
at  the  bloomery  of  the  Virginia  Company,  on  the  James  River,  in  1622. 
This  foundry  was  burned  by  the  Indians.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  colo- 
nists erected  a  foundry  at  Lynn  in  1631.  John  Winthrop,  Jr.,  built  a 
blast  furnace  at  Hammersmith  in  1644,  and  works  at  Braintree  two  years 
later.  In  1702  a  successful  furnace  was  established  at  Plymouth,  pig- 
iron  being  obtained  chiefly  from  Pennsylvania.  In  1732  there  were 
four  furnaces  in  successful  operation  in  Virginia  between  the  Potomac 
and  Rappahannock  Rivers.  The  iron  manufactured  there  was  exported 
to  England,  but  the  Massachusetts  trade  in  iron  was  almost  wholly 
domestic.  The  Ancram  Works,  built  in  New  York  in  1740,  to  use 
Salisbury  ore,  made,  between  1750  and  1756,  3,318  tons  of  pig-iron  and 
1,302  tons  of  bar  iron.  It  was  here  that  the  great  chain,  weighing  186 
tons,  which  was  stretched  across  the  Hudson  in  1778,  was  forged  in  six 
weeks.  The  first  iron  works  of  Pennsylvania  were  established  on  the 
Schuylkill  in  1717.  The  Revolution  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  iron 
trade.  Rolling  mills  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails  were  first  used  in 
1840  at  the  Mount  Savage  Works  and  at  the  Great  Western  Works. 
Since  then  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  particularly  of  steel  has  made 
wonderful  progress.  The  Bessemer  steel  made  in  this  country  is  con- 
sidered most  excellent.  The  Carnegie  system,  consisting  of  the  enor- 
mous works  at  Homestead,  Pa.,  and  a  number  of  minor  plants,  the 
Bethlehem  Steel  and  Iron  Company,  of  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  have  been  un- 
usually successful  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails  'and  platings,  the 
latter  plant  having  received  the  contracts  for  the  steel  plates  of  many  of 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  353 

the  United  States  war-ships.  Many  flourishing  iron  and  steel  works  are 
now  in  operation  in  most  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  notably 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  some  Southern  States.  The  annual  output  is 
enormous.  In  1890  the  United  States  produced  18,000,000  tons  of  iron 
ore,  9,202,703  tons  of  pig-iron  and  4,277,071  tons  of  steel.  Our  total 
sales  abroad  of  iron  and  steel  in  1890  amounted  to  123,712,814.  So 
rapid  has  been  the  increase  of  our  foreign  trade  that  in  1899  our  export 
of  these  two  metals  aggregated  the  surprising  sum  of  1105,689,645, 
which  was  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  export  of  all  American  manufactures 
for  that  year. 

"Ironsides,  Old,"  the  popular  name  for  the  frigate  "  Constitu- 
tion," a  name  made  additionally  famous  by  Dr.  Holmes'  poem. 

Iroquois,  or  Six  Nations,  an  Indian  confederation  occupying 
Central  New  York,  and  consisting,  when  first  known,  of  the  Mohawks, 
Oneidas,  Onondagas,  Cayugas  and  Senecas.  Later  the  Tuscaroras  were 
added.  In  the  seventeenth  century  they  carried  on  extensive  hostili- 
ties against  the  French  and  suffered  severe  losses.  They  allied  them- 
selves with  the  Dutch  and  subsequently  with  the  English,  though  they 
afterward  joined  Pontiac.  Peace  was  restored,  but  in  1774  a  part  of  the 
Western  bands  took  up  arms  against  the  whites.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion the  Iroquois,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  Canada,  favored  Eng- 
land. They  fought  against  the  colonists  and  committed  extensive 
ravages.  At  the  close  of  the  war  nearly  all  emigrated  to  Canada,  except 
the  Oneidas  and  Tuscaroras,  with  whom  the  Government  made  a  treaty 
in  1784.  In  1785  and  1788,  the  Indians  began  to  cede  lands.  In  the 
War  of  1812,  the  English  and  American  Iroquois  were  arrayed  against 
each  other,  but  peace  was  soon  restored.  The  tribes  became  scattered, 
some  going  west  and  still  others  seeking  their  relatives  in  Canada. 

Irving,  Washington  (1783-1859),  born  in  New  York,  spent  a 
large  part  of  his  life  abroad.  In  1807,  in  copartnership  with  his  brother, 
he  established  the  Salmagundi.  In  1808  he  published  his  "Knicker- 
bocker History  of  New  York."  In  1819  appeared  the  "  Sketch  Book," 
which  proved  a  great  success.  This  was  followed  by  "  Tales  of  a  Trav- 
eler," "  Life  of  Columbus,"  which  is  his  best  historical  work,  "The 
Conquest  of  Granada,"  and  "The  Alhambra."  From  1829  to  1832  he 
was  Secretary  of  Legation  in  London.  He  served  as  Minister  to  Spain 
from  1842  to  1846.  His  greatest  work  is  a  "Life  of  Washington"  in 
five' volumes  (1855).  He  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  American 
authors. 

Irwinsville,  Ga.,  scene  of  the  capture,  May  11,  1865,  of  Jefferson 
Vol.  V.— 23 


354  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Davis,  President  of  the  Confederacy,  by  Colonels  Harnden  and  Pritch- 
ard,  who  had  been  dispatched  in  pursuit  of  the  fleeing  President  after 
the  surrender  of  Lee's  and  Johnston's  army.  There  was  no  bloodshed, 
except  the  accidental  killing  of  two  Federal  soldiers  by  their  com- 
rades. 

Island  No.  10,  Mississippi  River,  had  been  fortified  by  General 
Polk,  Confederate,  and  was  commanded  by  General  Mackall  with  about 
8,000  troops  of  Beauregard's  army.  It  was  bombarded  three  weeks  by 
Commodore  Foote,  commanding  seven  Federal  gunboats,  and  sur- 
rendered April  10,1862.  The  evacuation  was  forced  by  Pope  with  a 
large  land  force.  He,  under  cover  of  a  vigorous  fire  from  two  gun- 
boats, which  had  run  past  the  island  by  night,  brought  his  men  across 
the  river  in  transports.  The  defenders  of  the  batteries  fled,  and  were 
pursued  into  the  swamps.  Nearlj  6,300  prisoners  were  taken,  together 
with  an  immense  quantity  of  ammunition  and  supplies.  The  island 
disappeared  several  years  ago  through  erosion  of  the  river  current. 

Italy.  The  United  States  was  prompt  to  recognize  the  new  kingdom 
of  Italy,  and  in  1868  a  consular  convention  was  concluded,  and  another 
in  1878,  which  were  both  superseded  by  that  of  1881.  A  commercial 
convention  was  concluded  in  1871.  Extradition  conventions  were  con- 
cluded in  1868  and  1884.  The  murder  of  Italian  citizens  in  New 
Orleans  in  1890  and  the  refusal  of  the  U.  S.  Government  to  interfere 
with  the  course  of  State  judicial  procedure  led  to  the  temporary  with- 
drawal of  the  Italian  Minister,  but  though  none  of  the  murderers  were 
brought  to  justice,  diplomatic  relations  were  soon  restored. 

"  Itata."  During  the  struggle  between  the  President  and  Congress 
of  Chili,  in  1891,  the  "Itata,"  Congressional  cruiser,  put  in  at  San 
Diego,  Cal.,  for  supplies  of  ammunition.  Violation  of  United  States 
neutrality  was  alleged  and  an  officer  seized  the  vessel.  The  "  Itata" 
put  him  ashore  and  escaped.  Pursued  by  the  "Charleston"  it  sur- 
rendered. But  a  United  States  court  afterward  decided  that  its  arrest 
was  unwarranted. 

Iuka,  Miss.,  an  encampment  of  several  thousand  Confederate 
troops  under  General  Price.  Grant  sent  Rosecrans  with  9,000  men  to 
destroy  Price's  army  and  prevent  his  co-operation  with  Bragg.  Rose- 
crans, after  some  delay,  attacked  the  Confederates  and  a  fierce  battle 
followed,  September  19-20,  1862,  both  sides  losing  heavily.  At  night 
the  Federals  lay  down  on  their  arms,  expecting  to  renew  the  fight  next 
day,  but  the  Confederates  moved  during  the  night.  Rosecrans  pur- 
sued, but  did  not  overtake  them. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  355 


J- 

Jackson,  Andrew  (March  15, 1767— June  8, 1845),  seventh  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  on  the  border  of  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina. He  began  his  military  career  at  the  early  age  of  thirteen  at  the 
battle  of  Hanging  Rock  ;  occupations  of  a  miscellaneous  nature  fol- 
lowed, and  in  1788  he  was  public  prosecutor  in  the  western  district  of 
North  Carolina,  now  Tennessee.  He  was  in  1796- 1797  the  first  Con- 
gressman from  the  State  of  Tennessee,  and  in  1 797-1 798  was  U.  S. 
Senator.  From  1798  to  1804  he  was  a  Judge  of  the  State  Supreme 
Court.  His  life  as  a  planter,  not  infrequently  chequered  with  disputes 
and  duels,  was  broken  by  the  War  of  1812.  Jackson,  "  Old  Hickory," 
as  he  was  called,  commanded  the  Southwestern  troops  against  the 
Creeks,  whom  he  overwhelmed  at  the  Horse-Shoe  Bend  of  the  Talla- 
poosa, March  27,  1814.  He  was  made  a  major-general,  stormed  Pen- 
sacola,  and  held  New  Orleans  against  Pakenham's  invasion.  The 
sweeping  victory,  January  8,  1815,  of  his  riflemen  over  the  flower  of 
the  Peninsular  army,  made  Jackson  for  all  time  an  American  hero  of 
the  country  in  general  and  of  the  Democratic  party  in  particular. 
General  Jackson's  actions  in  Florida,  capture  of  St.  Marks  in  181 8,  and 
summary  execution  of  two  British  subjects,  led  to  considerable  discus- 
sion. He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Florida  in  1821,  and  became  U.  S. 
Senator  in  1823.  In  1824  he  received  ninety-nine  electoral  votes  for 
President,  but  was  beaten  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  (See 
Adams,  J.  Q.)  Elected  in  1828  over  the  President,  he  entered  office  in 
1829,  the  first  Representative  of  the  new  West  and  of  the  " masses." 
In  his  Cabinet,  outside  of  Van  Buren,  there  were  few  names  of  note  ; 
Jackson's  real  advisers  were  a  coterie  of  practical  politicians,  Lewis, 
Kendall  and  others  of  the  so-called  "Kitchen  Cabinet."  In  1831  he 
reorganized  his  Cabinet,  and  the  next  year  was  re-elected  over  Clay. 
The  chief  features  of  his  eight  years,  1829-1837,  were  his  vigorous 
opposition  to  nullification  and  to  the  United  States  Bank,  his  censure 
by  the  Senate,  his  introduction  of  the  "  Spoils  System,"  his  settlement 
of  the  French  spoliation  dispute,  and  his  "Specie  Circular"  of  1836. 
After  his  retirement  he  continued  to  be  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the 
party,  and  died  at  the  "  Hermitage  "  near  Nashville. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan  (1824-1863),  a  native  of  Virginia, 
was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  in  time  to  see  service  in  the 
Mexican  War.     He  taught  in  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  and  was, 


356  ENCYCLOPEBIC  DICTIONARY. 

like  so  mraiy  other  West  Pointers,  lifted  by  the  Rebellion  from  obscu  • 
rity.  Having  sided  with  the  Confederacy  he  was  intrusted  with  a 
brigade,  whose  firm  stand  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  led  to  its  com- 
mander's epithet,  "Stonewall  Jackson."  His  military  fame  was  well 
grounded  by  the  extraordinary  rapidity  of  his  movements  in  the  Shen- 
andoah campaign  of  1862,  where  he  outgeneraled  the  Federals  Fremont, 
Banks  and  others,  gained  the  battles  of  Front  Royal,  May  23,  Win- 
chester, May  25,  Cross  Keys,  June  8,  and  Port  Republic,  June  9.  Hastily 
joining  Lee  before  Richmond,  he  decided  the  victory  at  Gaines'  Mills, 
June  27.  On  August  9  he  defeated  the  Federals  at  Cedar  Creek.  His 
bold  march  ended  in  the  victory  over  Pope  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  In  the  invasion  he  seized  Harper's  Ferry,  September  15,  and  com- 
manded the  left  wing  at  Antietam .  At  Fredericksburg  he  led  the  right 
wing  of  Lee's  army,  and  at  Chancellorsville,  May  2,  1863,  his  flanking 
movement  around  Hooker's  right  resulted  in  success.  But  "  Stone- 
wall "  Jackson  was  by  mistake  shot  by  his  own  men  in  this  battle  and 
died  a  few  days  later    at  Guinea  Station,  Va.  (May  10th). 

Jackson,  Fort,  IVa.,  a  Confederate  stronghold  on  the  south  of  the 
bend  in  the  Mississippi  River.  It  was  garrisoned  by  a  small  force 
under  the  command  of  General  Duncan,  and  was  bombarded  during 
Farragut's  expedition  against  New  Orleans,  finally  surrendering  to  Gen- 
eral Butler,  April  27,  1862. 

Jackson  City,  Miss.,  scene  of  a  battle  and  sack  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  battle  took  place  May  12,  1863,  between  McPherson's 
division  of  Grant's  army  then  operating  along  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
a  South  Carolina  brigade  of  Johnston's  army,  commanded  by  Walker. 
Crocker's  troop  bore  the  brunt  of  this  fight,  defeating  the  Confederates 
by  their  impetuous  and  untiring  charges.  The  latter  fled  to  their  de- 
fenses in  the  town,  but  were  shelled  out  of  these  by  Sherman.  July 
10-17,  after  the  fall  of  Vicksburg,  Johnston  had  again  retreated  to  his 
intrenchments.  There  he  was  invested  by  Sherman's  troops,  who  par- 
tially surrounded  the  town  and  opened  fire  upon  it.  Ammunition  gave 
out,  however,  and  Johnston,  taking  advantage  of  a  lull,  destroyed  as 
much  of  the  town  as  he  could  and  retreated  under  cover  of  a  dense  fog, 
July  17. 

James  I.  (1566-1625),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1603  to  1625, 
granted,  April  10,  1606,  to  a  company  of  London  merchants  a  patent 
for  the  colonization  of  America.  Of  this  company  were  formed  the  Vir- 
ginia and  Plymouth  Companies,  the  efforts  of  the  latter  failing  totally. 
The  Virginia  Company  was  granted  a  charter  to  establish  a  plantation 
between  410  and  34*  north  latitude,  the  Plymouth  between  450  and  380. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  357 

The  first  settlement  made  by  the  Virginia  Company  was  at  Jamestown 
in  1607;  The  persecutions  of  the  Separatists  in  England  caused  a  body 
of  that  sect  to  obtain  a  grant  of  land  from  the  Virginia  Company. 
These  Pilgrims  intended  to  settle  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware, 
but  storms  drove  them  to  the  north,  and  they  established  the  Plymouth 
colony  in  1620.  The  king  permitted  this,  but  would  not  give  a  special 
charter.  He  became  hostile  to  the  Virginia  Company,  and  in  1624 
brought  it  to  an  end  by  quo  warranto  proceedings. 

James  II.  (1633-1701),  King  of  Great  Britain  from  1685  to  1688,  had 
in  1664,  as  Duke  of  York,  received  from  his  brother,  Charles  II.,  a  pro- 
prietary grant  of  New  Netherland,  then  recently  conquered  from  the 
Dutch.  Under  his  authority  was  promulgated  the  code  called  the 
"Duke's  Laws."  His  grant  included  all  the  territory  between  the 
Connecticut  and  the  Delaware,  Long  Island,  Eastern  Maine,  Nantucket 
and  Martha's  Vineyard.  As  king,  he  adopted  a  policy  for  annulling 
the  colony  charters  and  solidifying  the  English  possessions  in  America. 
Sir  Edmund  Andros  was  sent  over  in  1686  with  orders  to  ignore  all 
colonial  political  machinery  and  to  govern  the  country  through  a  coun- 
cil. The  charters  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  were  immediately 
demanded  for  annullment,  the  latter  colony  only  complying.  In  1688 
Andros  was  made  Governor  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  as  well  as 
New  England,  his  jurisdiction  extending  from  Delaware  Bay  to  the 
confines  of  New  France. 

James,  Thomas  1^.,  born  in  New  York  in  1831,  edited  the  Demo- 
cratic Republican  from  1856  to  1866.  While  postmaster  of  New  York, 
from  1873  to  1881,  he  inaugurated  many  reforms.  He  was  appointed 
Postmaster-General  in  Garfield's  Cabinet  in  1881,  and  served  until 
Arthur's  administration  in  1882.  He  introduced  thorough  reform  in 
the  postal  service. 

James  Island,  S.  C,  scene  of  two  brief  engagements  during  the 
Civil  War.  In  the  first,  which  occurred  June  10,  1862,  during  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Federals  under  Hunter  against  Charleston,  Lamar,  holding 
the  island  with  25,000  Confederates,  easily  defeated,  at  Secessionville, 
and  drove  from  the  island,  Benham,  leading  6,000  Federals.  In  the 
second,  July  16,  1863,  Terry,  who  had  made  a  lodgment  upon  the  island 
with  a  small  force,  was  expelled  by  the  Confederates  under  Hagood. 
Terry's  movement  was  a  feint  to  draw  the  Confederates'  attention  from 
Fort  Wagner,  on  Morris  Island,  in  an  assault  upon  which  he  intended 
to  join  General  Gillmore. 

Jamestown,  Va.,  first  English  settlement  in  the  United  States,  was 


358  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

founded  in  1607  by  105  colonists  under  Christopher  Newport.  During 
the  first  season  the  colony  was  saved  from  destruction  by  the  efforts  of 
Captain  John  Smith.  On  July  30,  1619,  the  first  colonial  assembly  in 
America  was  held  here.  On  March  22,  1622,  several  hundred  colo- 
nists were  massacred  by  the  natives.  The  town  was  burned  in  1676 
during  Bacon's  rebellion.    In  1699  it  ceased  to  be  the  capital. 

Japan.  The  United  States  was  among  the  first  of  foreign  powers  to 
obtain  rights  of  intercourse  with  Japan.  Commodore  Perry  concluded 
a  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  March  31,  1854.  The  rights  of 
Americans  in  Japan  were  further  extended  by  the  Convention  of  1857, 
and  a  still  more  extensive  treaty  was  concluded  in  1858,  by  which  the 
former  treaties  were  partially  or  wholly  abrogated.  In  i860  a  Japanese 
embassy  was  sent  to  the  United  States.  By  the  Convention  of  October 
22,  1864,  Japan  agreed  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $3, 000,000  to  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  France  and  the  Netherlands  for  damages.  (See 
41  Shimonoseki.")  The  share  of  the  United  States  was  returned  to 
Japan  in  1883.  Commercial  treaties  were  concluded  in  1866  and  1878, 
the  latter  not  now  binding.  An  extradition  treaty  was  signed  April  29, 
1886. 

Jasper,  William  (1750-1779),  enlisted  in  a  South  Carolina  regiment 
in  1776.  In  the  attack  of  Fort  Moultrie  he  exposed  himself  to  the  fire  of 
the  enemy  in  order  to  recover  the  State  flag,  which  had  been  shot  from 
the  parapet.  He  was  very  successful  in  detachment  sendee.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  in  the  assault  on  Savannah. 

Jay,  John  (December  12,  1745 — May  17,  1829),  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  was  born  in  New  York  Citj'-,  of  Huguenot  descent.  He 
graduated  at  King's  (Columbia)  College  in  1766,  and  in  the  Revolution- 
ary period  was  prominent  on  the  patriotic  side  as  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Correspondence.  As  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Congress 
of  1774  he  was  an  author  of  the  "Address  to  the  People  of  Great 
Britain. ' '  He  was  a  member  of  the  Second  Congress,  and  as  delegate 
to  the  New  York  Convention  he  helped  in  drafting  the  State  Constitu- 
tion. In  1777  he  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  State.  In  1780  he  became 
Minister  to  Spain,  and  was  soon  associated  with  Adams  and  Franklin 
in  negotiating  the  peace  ;  Jay's  services  in  this  treaty  were  conspicuous. 
During  the  years  1 784-1 789  he  was  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs.  With 
Hamilton  and  Madison  he  wrote  the  Federalist,  of  which  five  essays 
are  indisputably  by  Jay.  He  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Conven- 
tion of  1788,  which  ratified  the  Constitution,  and  in  1789  Washington 
appointed  him  first  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.     In  1792  he  was 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  359 

the  unsuccessful  Federalist  candidate  for  Governor  of  New  York .  In 
1 794  Jay  was  sent  as  special  envoy  to  England  to  negotiate  the  treaty 
which,  under  the  name  of  the  "Jay  Treaty,"  became  an  object  of  such 
fierce  abuse.  His  last  public  service  was  as  Governor  of  New  York, 
1 795-1 801. 

Jay  Treaty,  a  treaty  concluded  in  1794  by  John  Jay  and  Lord  Gren- 
ville,  representing  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  respectively. 
The  treaty  provided  for  peace  and  friendship  between  the  two  coun- 
tries ;  an  evacuation  of  the  British  posts  in  the  United  States  by  June, 
1796  ;  free  commercial  and  Indian  intercourse  on  the  American  con- 
tinent ;  unrestricted  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  ;  indemnity  by  Eng- 
land to  American  citizens  for  recent  unlawful  captures  ;  corresponding 
indemnity  by  America  for  certain  Gen£t  captures  of  1793,  by  privateers 
fitted  out  in  our  ports  ;  and  a  limited  trade  between  the  United  States 
and  the  British  West  Indies,  by  which  our  carrying  trade  was  sadly 
curtailed.     The  treaty  was  generally  unpopular  in  this  country. 

Jay-hawkers,  guerrilla  bands  which  carried  on  an  irregular  warfare 
in  and  around  Eastern  Kansas  during  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War 
and  before  that  time. 

Jefferson,  Joseph,  actor,  born  in  1829,  was  employed  in  strolling 
theater  companies  from  1832  to  1850.  He  made  his  first  success  as 
"  Asa  Trenchard  "  in  "  Our  American  Cousin."  He  has  won  his  great- 
est fame  as  an  actor  by  his  rendering  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  and  Bob  Acres. 
His  acting  is  marked  by  variety,  vivacity  and  naturalness. 

Jefferson,  Thomas  (April  2,  1743— July  4, 1826),  third  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Shad  well,  Albemarle  County,  Va.  He 
was  graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College,  studied  law,  and  entered 
upon  its  practice  and  the  care  of  his  estate.  In  1769  he  entered  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  and  became  active  in  the  Revolutionary  agitation  ; 
but  his  activity  then  and  later  was  as  a  writer  rather  than  as  a  speaker. 
He  drafted  the  instructions  to  the  Virginia  delegates  to  the  first  Con- 
tinental Congress,  and  was  in  consequence  proscribed  in  Great  Britain. 
As  a  delegate  to  the  second  Continental  Congress  he  is  of  course  chiefly 
remembered  for  his  draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Soon 
after  signing  that  document  he  left  Congress  to  re-enter  the  Virginia 
Legislature,  where  he  labored  strenuously  for  democratic  reforms  in  the 
laws  respecting  the  church  and  the  descent  of  landed  property.  While 
Governor  of  Virginia,  1779-1781,  he  was  called  upon  to  resist  the  British 
invasion  of  the  State.  He  was  again  in  the  Legislature,  and  for  a  short 
time  in  Congress.     In  1784  he  went  to  France  as  Plenipotentiary,  and 


360  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

there  wrote  his  "  Notes  on  Virginia,"  and  observed  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution.  At  the  end  of  1789  Jefferson  returned  to  America,  and  en- 
tered upon  his  duties  as  Secretary  of  State  in  Washington's  first  Cabinet. 
In  the  ensuing  years  he  became  the  central  figure  in  the  Democratic- 
Republican  party  which  was  forming  in  opposition  to  the  Federalists. 
Hamilton,  ablest  of  the  Federalist  leaders,  was  also  in  the  Cabinet,  and 
between  the  two  divergence  of  views  developed  into  continual  disputes. 
Jefferson  finally  resigned  in  1794.  The  great  party  of  which  he  was  the 
head  gave  him,  in  1796,  almost  as  many  electoral  votes  as  were  given 
to  Adams.  He  became  accordingly  Vice-President.  At  this  epoch  he 
prepared  a  "  Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice,"  was  president  of  the 
Philosophical  Society,  and  drafted  the  Kentucky  Resolutions  of  1798. 
In  the  election  of  1 800-1 801  Jefferson's  party  defeated  Adams  and  the 
Federalists,  but  the  defective  provisions  of  the  Constitution  gave  to 
Jefferson  and  Burr  seventy -three  electoral  votes  each,  and  there  was  no 
election  ;  the  House  of  Representatives  accordingly  took  up  the  matter, 
and  a  bitter  struggle  ended  in  the  choice  of  Jefferson  for  first  place.  In 
his  Cabinet  Madison  was  Secretary  of  State,  Gallatin  of  the  Treasury, 
Dearborn  of  War,  Robert  Smith  of  the  Navy,  and  Lincoln  Attorney- 
General.  His  administration  was  marked  by  the  abolition  of  some 
usages  of  an  aristocratic  nature,  by  the  Tripolitan  War,  the  Loui  siana 
Purchase,  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition,  the  "  Chesapeake  "  incident, 
and  the  Embargo.  President  Jefferson  was  re-elected  in  1804,  and  re- 
tired from  office  in  1809,  but  continued  to  be  regarded  as  the  adviser  of 
the  party.  He  was  interested  in  later  life  in  plans  for  education  in 
Virginia,  and  superintended  the  planting  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 
He  died  at  Monticello  in  his  native  State.  His  political  theories  have 
had  more  influence  upon  the  public  life  of  America  than  those  of  any 
other  one  man. 

Jenkins  Ferry,  Ark.  Here,  April  30,  1864,  while  Steele,  with  a 
small  Federal  force,  was  attempting  to  cross  the  Saline  River,  Kirby 
Smith  fell  upon  him.  Steele  turned  and,  ordering  a  counter-charge, 
succeeded  in  dispersing  the  Confederates. 

Jenkins,  Thornton  A.,  born  in  181 1,  served  during  the  Mexican 
War.  He  commanded  in  Farragut's  fleet  from  1862  to  1865.  He  was 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  from  1865  to  1869. 

Jersey  Prison  Skip,  an  unseaworthy  sixty-four-gun  ship,  lying  off 
the  Brooklyn  shore  of  New  York  harbor  from  1776  to  1783,  and  used  by 
the  British  as  a  prison  for  captured  American  sailors.  Their  treatment 
was  most  inhuman.  Eleven  thousand  are  said  to  have  died  of  cold  and 
starvation. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  361 

Jesuits.  The  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  to  convert  the  Indians  belong  in 
general  rather  to  the  history  of  New  France  and  Canada  than  to  that  of 
the  United  States.  But  their  expeditions  extended  into  the  West,  where 
they  had  missionary  establishments  at  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  and  else- 
where. In  the  two  English  colonies  in  which  Catholics  were  tolerated, 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  all  the  priests  seem  to  have  been  Jesuits 
down  to  the  suppression  of  that  order  by  the  Pope  in  1773. 

Jewell,  Marshall  (1825-1883),  was  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut 
in  1869,  1871  and  1872.  He  was  Minister  to  Prussia  from  1873  to  J874- 
In  1874  he  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  ;  after  introducing  numer- 
ous reforms,  he  resigned  in  1876.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Republican 
National  Convention  in  1880,  and  was  elected  chairman  of  the  National 
Republican  Committee. 

Jews.  Settlements  began  to  be  made  by  these  people  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  About  1734  the}' 
began  to  come  in  considerable  numbers  to  Georgia,  but  the  trustees  of 
the  Oglethorpe  grant  objected  to  them,  and  promptly  checked  their  im- 
migration on  religious  grounds.  In  1749  they  had  established  a  flour- 
ishing body  at  Charleston,  and  had  built  a  meeting-house.  By  1765  a 
small  number  had  also  established  themselves  at  New  York.  Others 
settled  at  Newport. 

Jogues,  Isaac  (1607-1646),  came  to  Canada  from  France  in  1630, 
and  spent  his  life  among  the  Indians  as  a  Jesuit  missionary.  He  was 
twice  taken  captive  by  the  Mohawk  Indians,  terribly  tortured,  and 
finally  killed  by  them. 

Johnson,  Andrew  (December  29,  1808 — July  31,  1875),  seventeenth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.  He  had  no 
advantages  of  education,  and  was  in  early  life  a  tailor  ;  his  energy 
triumphed  over  drawbacks,  and  in  Tennessee,  where  he  had  settled,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  represented  the  State  in  Con- 
gress in  1 843- 1 853.  In  1853-57  he  was  Democratic  Governor  of  the 
State,  and  immediately  thereafter  was  U.  S.  Senator,  serving  until  1862. 
He  was  a  strong  Unionist,  and  was  by  President  Lincoln  appointed  mil- 
itary Governor  of  Tennessee  in  1862.  In  1864  he  was  selected  by  the 
Republicans  for  the  second  place  on  the  ticket,  was  elected,  and  by  the 
startling  death  of  Lincoln  he  was  lifted  into  national  prominence. 
President  Johnson  took  the  oath  of  office  April  15,  1865.  Though 
elected  as  a  Republican  he  had  never  ceased  to  hold  many  Democratic 
principles  ;  Congress  was  heavily  Republican  ;  their  divergence  of 
views,  accented  by  Johnson's  peculiarities  of  temper,  caused  a  bitter 


362  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

quarrel  between  executive  and  Congress.  The  veto  of  the  Freedmen'a 
Bureau  Bill  and  of  the  Civil  Rights  Bill  in  1866,  the  veto  of  the  Con- 
gressional  plan  of  reconstruction  and  the  Tenure  of  Office  Bill  in  1S67 
mark  the  stages  of  the  controversy.  In  1867  President  Johnson  sus- 
pended and  then  removed  Secretary  Stanton,  and  was  forthwith  im- 
peached by  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  trial  before  the  Senate, 
March-May,  1868,  resulted  in  his  acquittal,  as  the  President's  enemies 
mustered  one  less  than  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote.  Johnson  lived  in 
retirement  after  1869,  except  for  a  short  term  as  U.  S.  Senator  in  1875. 

Johnson,  Cave  (1793-1866)  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1829  to  1837,  and  from  1839  to  1845.  He 
was  Postmaster-General  in  Polk's  Cabinet  from  1845  to  1849. 

Johnson,  Herschel  V.  (1812-1880),  represented  Georgia  in  the 
U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  184S  to  1849.  He  was  Judge  of  the 
Georgia  Supreme  Court  from  1849  to  ^53-  He  was  Governor  of  the 
State  from  1853  to  1857.  He  was  defeated  as  Democratic  candidate  for 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  i860,  on  the  Douglas  ticket.  He 
served  in  the  Confederate  Senate. 

Johnson,  Sir  John  ( 1742- 1830) ,  was  knighted  in  1765  and  succeeded 
to  the  baronetcy  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  his  father,  in  1774.  He  fled 
from  New  York  to  Canada  in  1776  on  account  of  his  loyalist  principles. 
In  1777  ne  invested  Fort  Stanwix  and  fought  at  Oriskany.  In  1780  he 
superintended  the  atrocious  depredations  in  the  Cherry  Valley  and  con- 
ducted the  raids  in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  He  was  afterward  Governor 
of  Upper  Canada. 

Johnson,  Reverdy  (1 796-1876),  lawyer  and  diplomatist,  reached  a 
high  rank  at  the  Maryland  bar,  and  was  U.  S.  Senator  1845-1849,  and 
Attorney-General  in  President  Taylor's  administration,  1849-50.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Peace  Conference,  and  in  1863  re-entered  the 
Senate  as  a  Republican.  He  held  a  prominent  position  among  the 
leaders,  and  in  1868  was  sent  to  represent  this  country  at  London. 
Besides  achieving  great  popularity  in  England,  he  negotiated  the  so- 
called  Johnson-Clarendon  Treaty,  which,  however,  failed  of  ratification 
by  the  U.  S.  Senate.     Mr.  Johnson  returned  in  1869. 

Johnson,  Richard  M.  (1781-1850),  served  in  the  Kentucky  legis- 
lature in  1804.  He  represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Republican  from  1807  to  1819.  In  1812  he  commanded  a  regiment  in 
the  war.  In  1813  he  fought  at  Chatham  and  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  killed  Tecumtha.  He  served  in  the  U.  S.  Sen- 
ate from  1819  to  1829,  and  in  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  363 

1S29  to  1S37.  lie  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  by 
the  vSenate  in  1S37,  and  served  from  1837  to  1841,  with  Martin  Van 
Bnren  as  President. 

Johnson,  Sir  William  (1715-1774),  was  born  in  Ireland,  and,  hav- 
ing emigrated  to  America,  settled  in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  In  this 
region,  then  mainly  an  Indian  wilderness,  Johnson's  tact,  ability  and 
knowledge  of  the  Indian  character  made  him  the  central  personage. 
He  was  colonel  of  the  Six  Nations,  commissary  of  Indian  affairs,  and 
member  of  the  Governor's  council.  His  headquarters  was  Fort  John- 
son, near  Amsterdam.  The  influence  of  the  Johnson  family  held  the 
Six  Nations  to  the  English  alliance  in  the  French  and  Revolutionary 
wars.  Johnson  attended  the  Albany  Congress  in  1754,  and  the  next 
year  was  appointed  to  command  in  the  north.  For  the  victory  at  the 
head  of  Lake  George,  September  8,  1755,  really  won  by  General  Lyman, 
Johnson  received  the  credit  together  with  a  baronetcy  and  a  sum  of 
money.  In  1759,  after  the  fall  of  Prideaux,  he  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand in  the  attack  on  Fort  Niagara. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sidney  (1S03-1862),  a  distinguished  Confederate 
general,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826. 
He  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  entered  soon  after  the  army  of 
Texas,  and  became  Secretary  of  War  for  that  republic.  He  passed 
through  the  Mexican  War,  wTas  for  a  short  time  a  planter,  and  again  in 
the  U.  S.  army  rose  to  be  paymaster  and  colonel.  He  commanded 
skillfully  the  expedition  to  Utah,  and  was  in  charge  of  the  Department 
of  the  Pacific  when  the  war  broke  out.  Having  espoused  the  Confed- 
erate cause  he  was  appointed  a  general  and  intrusted  with  command  in 
the  West.  He  fortified  the  strategic  point  of  Bowling  Green,  but  his 
forces  were  driven  back,  and  he  was  compelled  to  concentrate  at  Cor- 
inth. From  this  point  he  planned  a  surprise  on  Grant's  army  lying  at 
Pittsburg  Landing.  The  attack  was  executed  in  one  of  the  fiercest 
battles  of  the  war,  but  General  Johnston  was  killed  in  the  afternoon  of 
the  first  day  while  leading  a  charge. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eggleston  (February  3, 1807—March  21, 1891), 
a  celebrated  Confederate  general,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1829.  He  had  a  long  career  of  service  in  the  old  army 
in  the  wars  with  Black  Hawk,  the  Seminoles,  as  engineer  in  Scott's 
campaign  in  Mexico,  where  he  distinguished  himself  at  Chapultepec, 
and  finally  as  quartermaster-general.  The  Confederate  Government 
appointed  him  a  major-general,  and  he  commanded  at  the  first  battle 
of  Bull  Run.  He  had  charge  of  the  operations  in  Virginia  down  to  the 
middle  of  McClellan's   Peninsula  campaign,  when    he  was  severely 


364  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

wounded  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  and  was  replaced  by  General  Lee, 
He  had  meanwhile  been  raised  to  the  full  rank  of  general,  and  in  1863 
he  was  sent  to  relieve  Pemberton  before  Vicksburg,  but  failed.  In  the 
following  December  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  Bragg's  defeated 
army  ;  with  this  force  he  was  the  next  year  opposed  to  Sherman  in  the 
mountains  of  northern  Georgia,  and  the  skillful  maneuvering  of  these 
two  great  masters  of  strategy  has  elicited  warm  praise.  President 
Davis,  displeased  with  Johnston,  put  Hood  in  his  place  ;  but  the  next 
winter  the  two  old  antagonists  were  again  pitted  against  each  other  in 
North  Carolina,  where  Johnston  surrendered  April  26,  1865.  Subse- 
quently he  was  a  railroad  president  and  a  Congressman  from  Virginia- 
He  wrote  a  "  Narrative  of  Military  Operations." 

Johnston,  Mary,  see  appendix,  page  486. 

Joliet,  I^ouis  (1645-1700),  a  noted  French  explorer,  was  born  in 
Quebec  and  educated  at  a  Jesuit  college.  The  scope  of  his  explorations 
was  the  same  as  Marquette's  and  La  Salle's,  the  linking  together  of  the 
great  systems  of  the  St.  Lawrence  lakes  and  the  Mississippi.  With  Mar- 
quette he  started  from  Mackinaw,  ascended  Lake  Michigan  and  de- 
scended the  Illinois  River  in  1673  to  its  mouth  in  the  "  Father  of 
Waters ' '  ;  thence  he  descended  the  great  river  to  the  present  State  of 
Arkansas,  and  returned  to  Canada.  The  chief  credit  of  the  exploration 
of  the  Mississippi,  whether  due  to  Joliet,  his  distinguished  associate, 
or  to  La  Salle,  is  a  controverted  question. 

Jonathan,  or  Brother  Jonathan.  The  use  of  this  expression,  to 
denote  the  Yankee  or  American,  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  General 
Washington's  habitual  use  of  it  to  designate  Governor  Jonathan  Trum- 
bull, of  Connecticut,  a  valued  helper  in  the  conduct  of  the  war. 

Jones,  Jacob  (1768-1850),  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1799.  He  was 
a  lieutenant  of  the  "  Philadelphia  "  from  1801  to  1803.  In  command 
of  the  "  Wasp"  he  captured  the  British  brig  "Frolic"  in  1812.  This 
was  one  of  the  first  important  naval  victories  of  the  war.  In  1813  he 
commanded  the  "Macedonian  "  in  Decatur's  squadron. 

Jones,  Jas.  K.,  see  appendix,  page  486. 

Jones,  John  Paul  (July  6,  1747— July  18,  1792),  a  naval  hero,  was 
born  in  Scotland,  and  had  been  engaged  in  the  merchant  marine 
previous  to  his  settlement  in  Virginia,  shortly  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Revolutionary  War.  On  the  opening  of  hostilities  he  volunteered 
with  enthusiasm  in  the  service  of  his  adopted  country,  was  appointed 
first  lieutenant,  and  made  a  number  of  successful  cruises.  In  1777  he 
sailed  to  France.  From  Brest  as  headquarters  he  conducted  in  his  ship, 
the  "  Ranger,"  a  remarkable  expedition  to  the  British  coasts,  for  which 
his  old  acquaintance  with  the  localities  had  well  fitted  him.     In  St» 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  365 

George's  Channel  he  took  prizes,  landed  at  Whitehaven  and  terrorized 
the  seaboard  for  a  short  time.  He  captured  the  British  "  Drake,"  and 
his  success  led  him  in  1779  to  start  in  command  of  a  small  fleet  against 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  island  ;  his  own  vessel  was  the  ' '  Bon  Homme 
Richard."  With  this  fleet  he  encountered  off  Scarborough  a  British 
convoy  and  ships  of  war.  One  of  the  fiercest  naval  fights  on  record 
followed  between  Jones'  vessel  and  the  British  "  Serapis  "  on  the  even- 
ing of  September  23,  1779.  The  "  Serapis  "  finally  struck,  but  the 
American  ship  was  completely  disabled,  and  the  losses  in  the  close- 
range  struggle  were  great.  Jones  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and 
a  gold  sword  from  L,ouis  XVI.  After  the  war  he  was  a  rear-admiral  in 
the  Russian  navy,  and  died  in  Paris. 

Jones,  William  (1760-1831),  served  in  the  battles  of  Trenton  and 
Princeton  during  the  Revolution.  He  represented  Pennsylvania  as  a 
Democrat  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1801  to  1803.  He  was  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  in  1813  and  1814.  Subsequently  he  was  president  of  the 
U.  S.  Bank. 

Jonesboro,  Ga.  A  series  of  short  but  sharp  engagements  during 
Sherman's  investment  of  Atlanta  in  1864,  the  town  being  then  held  by 
Hood  with  some  60,000  Confederates.  Sherman's  force  was  nearly 
100,000  strong.  There  was  some  fighting  between  Atlanta  and  Jones- 
boro August  19  and  20,  Kilpatrick  having  been  dispatched  to  destroy 
the  Macon  railroad  and  encountering  a  cavalry  troop  under  Ross,  whom 
he  defeated.  Kilpatrick  was  in  his  turn  defeated  the  next  day  by  a 
Confederate  infantry  force.  Meantime  Hardee  had  been  sent  from  At- 
lanta to  Jonesboro  by  Hood  to  guard  his  communications.  On  August 
31  Hardee  fell  upon  the  Federal  right  under  Howard  and  a  desperate 
battle  took  place,  in  which  Hardee  was  decidedly  worsted.  Hardee  re- 
treated that  same  night. 

Jouett,  James  1$.,  born  in  1828,  served  during  the  Mexican  War. 
In  command  of  the  "  Santee  "  in  1861,  he  captured  the  '*  Royal  Jacket," 
and  was  active  at  Mobile  under  Commodore  Farragut.  In  1886  he  be- 
came a  rear-admiral. 

Journals  of  Congress.  "  The  Journals  of  Congress  "  from  1774  to 
1788  were  first  published  at  Philadelphia  in  thirteen  volumes,  octavo, 
1777-1788,  but  they  were  reprinted  at  Washington  in  four  volumes, 
octavo,  1823.  The  proceedings  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  were 
published  at  Boston  in  1819,  entitled  "Journal,  Acts  and  Proceedings 
of  the  Convention  Assembled  at  Philadelphia  which  Framed  the  Co»- 
stitution  of  the  United  States."    There  was  also  published  at  Boston,  in 


366  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIOxNARY. 

1821,  a  work  in  four  volumes,  entitled  "  Secret  Journals  of  the  Acts  and 
Proceedings  of  Congress  from  the  First  Meeting  thereof  to  the  Dissolu- 
tion of  the  Confederation  by  the  Adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States."  The  Journals  of  the  Congress  under  the  Constitution 
have  been  printed  each  session,  according  to  the  requirement  of  the 
Constitution. 

Judiciary.  Except  in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Puritan  colonies,  the 
judiciary  in  the  colonies  was  modeled  on  that  of  England.  In  each, 
the  Governor  (in  the  general  case)  constituted  the  court  of  admiralty, 
the  court  of  equity,  and  the  ecclesiastical  and  highest  probate  court. 
There  was  a  supreme  or  superior  common-law  court,  from  which  appeals 
lay  to  the  Governor  and  council,  and  ultimately  to  the  King  in  Coun- 
cil. County  courts  were  commonly  held  after  the  forms  of  the  justices* 
courts  of  quarter  session  in  England  ;  and  there  was  a  similar  system 
of  lowest  courts,  held  by  individual  justices.  When,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Revolution,  the  States  made  their  new  Constitutions,  they  either 
abolished  those  courts  which  were  not  common-law  courts  or  reorgan- 
ized them,  or  gave  their  functions  to  the  common-law  courts.  Other- 
wise little  change  was  made  in  the  system.  Under  the  Continental 
Congress  the  beginnings  of  a  Federal  judiciary  are  seen  in  the  opera- 
tions of  the  commissions  which  decided  land  cases  between  States,  and 
in  those  of  the  commissioners  of  appeal  in  prize  causes,  which,  in  1781, 
under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  was  erected  into  a  more  regular 
court.  The  Constitution  of  1787  provided  for  a  supreme  court,  and  such 
inferior  courts  as  Congress  might  establish.  By  the  Judiciary  Act  of 
1789,  Congress  established  circuit  and  district  courts.  (See  arts. 
Supreme  Court,  Circuit  Courts  and  District  Courts. )  These  constituted 
the  Federal  system  until  1891,  when  the  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeal  were 
added.  Colonial  judges  were  mostly  appointed  by  the  Governors.  In 
some  States  this  feature  was  retained  ;  in  most,  it  has  now  become  the 
rule  that  judges  are  elected  by  the  people.  Beside  the  strictly  Federal 
courts  provided  by  the  Constitution,  Congress  has  established  a  system 
of  Territorial  courts,  and  the  Court  of  Claims. 

Judson,  Adoniram  (1 788-1850),  was  a  successful  American  mis- 
sionary to  Burmah  from  1813  to  1850.  He  thoroughly  mastered  the 
Burmese  language  and  translated  a  number  of  books,  including  the 
entire  Bible. 

Juilliard  vs.  Greenman,  a  case  involving  a  question  of  legal 
tender,  brought  by  plaintiff  on  writ  of  error  from  the  Circuit  Court  of 
New  York  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1884.  Juilliard 
having  contracted  a  sale  to  Greenman,  the  latter  offered  payment  in 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  367 

United  States  notes,  which  the  plaintiff  refused,  demanding  payment 
in  gold  or  silver.  The  Circuit  Court  found  a  verdict  for  the  defendant, 
on  the  ground  that  notes  issued  by  the  United  States  are  legal  tender 
for  payment  of  any  debt.  The  Supreme  Court  confirmed  this  judgment, 
thus  affirming  the  constitutionality  of  the  Legal  Tender  Act  of  1862. 

Julian,  George  W.,  born  in  181 7,  was  a  Free-Soil  Representative 
to  Congress  from  Indiana  from  1849  to  185 1.  He  was  the  Free-Soil 
candidate  for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  1852.  He  was 
Vice-President  of  the  first  Republican  convention  in  1856  and  chairman 
of  the  organization  committee.  He  was  a  Republican  member  of  the 
U.  S.  Congress  from  1861  to  1871.     Died  in  1899. 

Jumonville,  N.  Coulon  de  (1725?-!  754),  was  sent  by  the  French 
in  1754  to  summon  Washington  to  surrender  the  fort  at  Great  Meadows. 
He  was  killed  in  an  attack  which  was  represented  as  a  violation  of  in- 
ternational law  by  the  French,  but  probably  was  not. 

Justice,  Department  of.  This  department  was  not  created  until 
June  22,  1870,  though  the  office  of  Attorney-General,  who  is  at  its  head, 
was  created  September  24,  1789.  The  earlier  Attorneys-General  had 
leisure  to  practice  as  attorneys.  An  assistant  was  first  given  the  At- 
torney-General in  1859,  a  second  in  1868,  a  third  in  1871.  In  1861  the 
Attorney-General  v«i»  given  supervision  of  all  U.  S.  district  attorneys 
and  marshals. 


K. 


Kalakaua,  David  (1836-1891),  was  made  king  of  Hawaii  in  1874 
and  established  hi*  government  with  the  aid  of  American  and  English 
ships.  He  died  in  San  Francisco  while  negotiating  a  treaty  of  reciproc- 
ity with  the  United  States. 

Kalb,  Johann,  self-styled  Baron  de  Kalb  (1721-1780),  visited 
America  as  a  secret  agent  of  the  French  Government  in  1768.  He  was 
encouraged  by  Franklin  and  Silas  Deane  to  join  the  Continental  army, 
and  accompanied  Lafayette  to  the  United  States  in  1777.  He  was  ap- 
pointed maior-general  and  served  under  Washington  in  New  Jersey  and 
Maryland-  In  1780  he  was  dispatched  to  South  Carolina  in  command 
of  the  Delaware  and  Maryland  troops.  At  Camden  his  troops  defeated 
the  opposing  British  force,  but  were  subsequently  surrounded  and 
DeKalb  was  mortally  wounded. 


368  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Kane,  Blisha  K.  (1820-1857),  served  in  the  navy  as  a  surgeon 
from  1843  to  J^5°-  He  accompanied  E.  J.  DeHaven  in  1850  on  his 
Arctic  expedition.  In  1853-55  he  commanded  the  "  Advance  "  in  an 
Arctic  exploring  expedition.  He  reached  latitude  8o°  35',  and  made, 
valuable  and  accurate  scientific  observations,  which  he  published  in 
his  reports. 

Kansas.  The  territory  of  the  State  of  Kansas  formed  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  and  Texas  cessions.  The  greater  part  w,as  acquired  by  the 
United  States  in  1803.  The  portion  lying  south  of  the  Arkansas  River 
and  west  of  longitude  ioo°  W.  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Texas 
in  1850.  The  region  was  explored  in  1541  by  Coronado,  a  Spaniard. 
In  1819-1820  it  was  partly  explored  by  Major  Long,  of  the  United 
States  Army.  In  1854  Stephen  A.  Douglas  introduced  a  bill  into  Congress 
providing  for  the  organization  of  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  territories, 
and  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,  whereby  slavery 
was  prohibited  north  of  360  30'.  The  existence  of  slavery  was  left  to 
the  decision  of  the  people  of  the  State  when  admitted.  The  introduc- 
tion and  passage,  May  30,  1854,  of  this  bill  caused  intense  political 
excitement.  Emigrants  from  Arkansas  and  Missouri  immediately  be- 
gan to  move  into  Kansas  to  hold  the  State  for  the  pro-slavery  party. 
On  the  other  hand  the  Massachusetts  Emigrant  Aid  Society  sent  out 
colonies  to  keep  slavery  out  of  the  State.  The  "  Kansas  struggle  "  then 
began.  The  pro-slavery  men,  aided  by  bauds  from  Missouri,  elected 
the  Territorial  delegate  to  Congress,  November  29,  1854.  March  30, 
1855,  an  election  took  place  for  a  Territorial  Legislature,  in  which  the 
pro-slavery  men  were  again  successful.  At  this  election  5,427  votes 
were  cast  for  their  candidates,  and  791  for  their  opponents,  and  yet 
there  were  but  2,905  legal  voters  in  the  country.  This  Legislature  met 
at  Pawnee  in  July,  and  immediately  proceeded  to  vote  Kansas  a  slave 
Territory.  On  the  other  hand,  the  anti-slavery  men  met  in  convention 
at  Topeka,  and  adopted  a  State  Constitution  which  prohibited  slavery, 
October-November,  1855.  This  Constitution  was  ratified  by  popular 
vote,  December  15.  An  election  for  a  Legislature  was  held  under  this 
Constitution  in  January.  May  21,  Lawrence  was  pillaged.  In  the  same 
year  a  party  under  John  Brown  murdered  five  men.  A  bill  for  the 
admission  of  the  State  was  defeated  in  the  Senate,  and  the  State  Legis- 
lature was  dispersed  by  Federal  troops  in  1856.  A  pro-slavery  conven- 
tion adopted  the  Lecompton  Constitution,  which  was  submitted  to  a 
popular  vote  with  or  without  slavery.  The  anti-slavery  men  refused  to 
vote,  and  the  Constitution  was  adopted.  At  a  second  election,  January 
4,  1858,  it  was  defeated,  and  again  on  August  3,  at  another  election 
ordered  by  Congress.     In  1859  a  constitutional  convention  at  Wyan- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  369 

dotte  adopted  a  Constitution  prohibiting  slavery,  which  was  ratified 
October  4.  January  29,  1861,  Kansas  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  State  was  steadily  Republican  until  1882,  when  the  Democrats 
carried  the  election.  In  1892  the  electoral  votes  of  the  State  were  cast 
for  the  candidate  of  the  People's  party.  The  population  of  the  State  in 
1890  was  1,427,096  ;  in  i860  it  was  107,206. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  bill,  which 
was  passed  by  Congress  May  22,  1854,  Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  sep- 
arated and  organized  into  Territories.  The  importance  of  this  bill  lay 
in  the  fact  that  it  practically  repealed  the  Missouri  Compromise.  In 
the  bill  as  reported  by  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  the  question  of  slavery  in 
the  two  Territories  was  to  be  settled  within  the  Territories,  and  if 
adopted  the  fugitive  slave  law  was  to  apply.  The  status  of  Nebraska 
was  easily  settled  as  a  free  Territory,  but  the  question  caused  much 
trouble  in  Kansas.  The  passage  of  the  act  had  much  to  do  with  bring- 
ing on  the  Civil  War. 

Kaskaskia,  111.,  a  French  settlement,  settled  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  garrisoned  in  1778  by  British  soldiers.  Colonel 
George  Rogers  Clark  captured  it  with  three  companies  of  Kentucky 
recruits  on  the  night  of  July  4,  after  a  short  struggle  and  with  but  little 
bloodshed. 

Kasson,  John  A.,  born  in  1822,  was  chairman  of  the  Iowa  Repub- 
lican Committee  from  1858  to  i860.  He  was  appointed  Assistant  Post- 
master-General in  1 86 1  and  served  till  1862.  He  represented  Iowa  in 
the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1863  to  1867,  from  1873  to 
1877  and  from  1881  to  1884.  He  was  Minister  to  Austria  from  1877  to 
1881  and  to  Germany  from  1884  to  1885. 

Kautfc,  Angnst  V.,  born  in  Germany  in  1828,  was  brevetted  colonel 
U.  S.  army  for  services  during  the  Civil  War.  He  engaged  in  the  Pen- 
insular campaign  in  1862,  at  South  Mountain,  Petersburg  and  Richmond, 
and  was  noted  for  his  cavalry  raids  in  southern  Virginia  in  1864.  Died 
1895. 

Kearny,  I^awrence  (1789-1868),  served  in  the  navy  during  the 
War  of  1812.  He  was  successful  in  destroying  piracy  and  smug- 
gling. He  was  influential  in  negotiating  the  Treaty  of  1845  with 
China. 

Kearny,  Philip  (1815-1862),  entered  the  army  in  1837.    He  was 
sent  by  the  U.  S.  Government  in   1839  and  1840  to  report  upon  the 
cavalry  tactics  of  the  French.     During  the  Mexican  War  he  was  bre- 
vetted major  for  gallantry  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco.     In  1861  he 
Vol.  V,— 24 


370  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

was  assigned  command  of  a  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He 
engaged  at  Williamsburg  and  served  with  the  Army  of  Virginia.  In 
1862  he  was  assigned  command  of  a  division  and  fought  at  Bull  Run. 
He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Chantilly. 

Kearny,  Stephen  W.  (1794-1848),  served  throughout  the  War  of 
1812.  He  was  promoted  brigader-general  in  1846,  with  command  in  the 
West.  During  the  Mexican  War  he  established  a  provisional  govern- 
ment in  Santa  Fe  and  fought  the  battle  of  San  Pasqual,  after  which  he 
was  made  major-general.  In  1847  ne  was  Governor  of  California.  He 
wrote  a  "  Manual  of  the  Exercise  and  Maneuvering  of  U.  S.  Dragoons. " 

"  Kearsarge,"  the  U.  S.  man-of-war  which  destroyed  and  sunk  the 
Confederate  cruiser  "  Alabama,"  off  Cherbourg  harbor,  in  France,  June 
19,  1864.  In  1894  it  was  wrecked  on  Ricondor  reef  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea. 

"Kearsarge"  and  "  Alabama, "  a  famous  naval  battle  of  the 
Civil  War  occurring  June  19,  1864,  just  off  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg, 
France.  The  Confederate  war-ship  '•  Alabama  "  was  at  that  time  en- 
gaged in  destroying  Union  vessels  in  European  waters.  She  was  com- 
manded by  Semmes  ;  had  eight  guns  and  sixty  men.  Winslow  com- 
manded the  "  Kearsarge,"  the  National  ship  having  been  dispatched  in 
search  of  the  "Alabama."  The  "Kearsarge"  had  seven  guns  and 
sixty -two  msn.  The  "  Kearsarge  "  lay  waiting  for  the  Confederate  ship 
outside  the  harbor.  The  battle  took  place  some  seven  miles  out  at  sea. 
The  ' '  Alabama  ' '  began  the  firing  without  much  effect  upon  her  oppo- 
nent. When  the  ' '  Kearsarge  ' '  opened  fire,  her  superiority  in  point  of 
management  and  gunnery  was  at  once  evinced.  One  of  her  shells  cut 
off  the  Alabama's  mizzenmast  and  another  exploded,  killing  half  her 
crew.     She  was  speedily  disabled  and  sunk.     Semmes  escaped. 

Kelley,  Benjamin  F.  (1807-1891),  during  the  Civil  War  fought  at 
Philippi,  Romney  and  Blue  Gap.  In  1863  he  commanded  the  Depart- 
ment of  West  Virginia.  He  was  brevetted  major-general  in  1864  for 
services  at  Cumberland,  New  Creek  and  Morefield. 

Kelley,  William  D.  (1814-1890),  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841. 
He  was  Judge  of  the  Philadelphia  Court  of  Common  Pleas  from  1846  to 
1856.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Republican  National  Convention  of  i860, 
and  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Republican 
from  1861  to  1890.  He  published  "  The  New  South  "  and  many  in- 
fluential political  writings,  and  was  noted  as  a  strong  protectionist. 

Kellogg,  William  P.,  born  in  1831,  represented  Louisiana  in  the 
U,  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1868  to  187 1.     Kellogg  was  recognized 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  371 

by  the  U.  S.  Government  as  Governor  of  Louisiana  in  1872  in  opposition 
to  the  rival  government  led  by  McEnery.  He  served  until  1877.  He 
again  served  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  from  1877  to  1883,  and  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  1883  to  1885. 

Kendall,  Amos  (1789-1869),  of  Kentucky,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
earnestly  supported  Jackson  in  1824.  In  1829  ne  was  appointed  an 
auditor  in  the  Treasury  Department.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  men  in 
Jackson's  administration,  guiding  the  anti-bank  policy,  and  advising 
and  directing  the  President  in  all  his  duties.  He  was  Postmaster- 
General  of  the  United  States  from  1835  to  1840  in  the  Cabinets  of  Jack- 
son and  Van  Buren.  He  was  an  ardent  anti-slavery  advocate  ;  and, 
though  a  Jackson  Democrat,  earnestly  supported  the  administration 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson,  Private, 
Military  and  Civil." 

Kenesaw  Mountain,  Ga.  To  this  strong  position  General  John- 
ston had  retreated  about  June  11,  1864,  with  about  60,000  Confederates, 
Sherman  following  him  closely  with  100,000  Federal  troops.  Johnston 
succeeded  in  fortifying  himself  quite  strongly.  A  smart  skirmish  took 
place  June  14,  and  General  Polk,  of  Confederate  fame,  was  killed.  On 
the  17th  an  assault  was  ordered  by  Sherman,  which  caused  Johnston  to 
contract  his  line.  After  this,  during  ten  days,  Johnston's  cannon  kept 
booming  away  from  the  heights,  while  Sherman's  army  lay  in  the 
valley  below,  almost  untouched.  On  the  22d  an  ineffectual  attack  was 
made  by  Hooker  and  Schofield,  in  which  the  Nationals  lost  heavily. 
This  is  known  as  the  affair  of  "  Kulp's  House."  Again  on  the  27th 
Sherman  caused  two  attacks  to  be  made  simultaneously  and  from  differ- 
ent quarters.  So  Hooker  and  McPherson  advanced  against  the  Con- 
federates' left  and  center.  Both  assaults  failed  disastrously.  Nearly 
2,600  Federals  were  missing  in  killed  and  wounded.  July  1,  however, 
McPherson  made  a  more  successful  attack  and  Johnston  was  compelled 
to  retire. 

Kennebec  Expedition,  an  expedition  along  the  Kennebec  River, 
sent  out  by  Washington  under  Benedict  Arnold,  in  1775,  to  co-operate 
with  Montgomery's  Canada  expedition.  Arnold  was  assisted  in  this 
campaign  by  a  number  of  Indians.  With  1,100  men  Arnold  reached 
Fort  Augusta,  Maine,  and  thence  proceeded  through  the  wilderness 
along  the  Kennebec  toward  Quebec.  Upon  reaching  that  place,  which 
was  garrisoned  by  a  small  force,  he  made  the  ascent  at  Wolfe's  Cove  and 
demanded  a  surrender.  The  garrison  refused  and  Arnold,  becoming 
frightened,  drew  off.  He  dispatched  Burr  to  Montreal,  which  had  been 
captured  by  Montgomery.     The  latter  joined  Arnold  at  Quebec  and 


373  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

together  they  assaulted  the  town.  Montgomery  was  killed  and  his 
force  drew  off  under  Campbell.  Arnold  kept  Carleton,  the  English 
commander,  shut  up  in  Quebec  for  three  months,  till  he  was  driven  away 
by  Burgoyne. 

Kennedy,  John  P.  (1795-1870),  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland 
House  of  Delegates  from  1820  to  1823.  He  represented  Maryland  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1838  to  1839,  and  from  1841  to  1845. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Fillmore's  Cabinet  from  1852  to  1853. 
He  wrote  a  life  of  William  Wirt  and  one  of  George  Calvert. 

Kent,  Jacob  Ford,  born  at  Philadelphia,  September  14,  1835,  en- 
tered army  as  2d  lieutenant  3d  Infantry,  May  6,  1861,  promoted  1st 
lieutenant,  brevetted  captain  and  made  a  major  as  a  reward  for  gallant 
conduct  at  Marye's  Heights.  He  was  promoted  to  colonel  for  gallantry 
at  Spottsylvania,  and  after  the  close  of  the  war  entered  the  regular 
army  as  colonel  of  the  24th  Infantry.  He  served  in  command  of  the 
1st  Division,  5th  Corps  in  Cuba,  as  major-general  of  volunteers,  leading 
the  fight  at  San  Juan,  Cuba,  and  on  October  4  was  made  brigadier- 
general  in  the  U.  S.  Army.  Retired  October  15,  1898,  on  his  own  ap- 
plication after  forty  years  of  active  service. 

Kent,  James  (1763-1847),  jurist,  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Legislature  in  1790  and  1792.  He  was  a  Judge  of  the  New  York 
Supreme  Court  from  1798  to  1804,  and  Chief  Justice  from  1804  to  1814. 
He  was  Chancellor  of  New  York  from  1814  to  1823.  He  published 
"Commentaries  on  American  Law,"  which  is  the  standard  general 
treatise  on  American  law. 

Kenton,  Simon  (1 755-1836),  a  Kentucky  pioneer,  served  as  a  scout 
in  the  colonial  army  till  1778.  He  commanded  a  Kentucky  battalion 
from  1793  to  1794.     He  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames  in  1813. 

Kentucky  was  originally  a  part  of  Virginia.  The  first  settlements 
were  made  by  James  Harrod  and  others  at  Harrodsburg  in  1774,  and 
by  Daniel  Boone  at  Boonesborough  in  1775.  A  land  company  in  1775 
attempted  to  organize  a  separate  government  under  the  name  of  Tran- 
sylvania. In  1776  Kentucky  became  Kentucky  County  of  Virginia. 
The  refusal  of  Virginia  and  the  National  Government  to  allow  a 
separate  government  and  the  indignation  over  the  provision  concerning 
the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  led  to  efforts  being  made  to  form  an  in- 
dependent republic  with  alliance  with  Spain  or  Canada.  June  1, 1792, 
the  State  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  The  close  union  of  political 
feeling  with  Virginia  was  shown  by  the  passage  of  the  "  Kentucky  and 
Virginia  Resolutions"  of  1798  and  1799,  which  protested  against  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  373 

passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  by  the  Federalists.  The  Demo- 
crats controlled  the  State  until  1830,  except  in  1824,  when  the  electoral 
votes  were  cast  for  Clay.  Kentucky  became  a  Whig  State,  and  so  re- 
mained until  1856,  when  the  Democrats  carried  the  State.  In  i860  the 
electoral  votes  were  cast  for  Bell.  In  1861  the  Governor  sympathized 
with  the  South,  but  the  Legislature  refused  to  call  a  convention,  and 
elected  delegates  to  the  Peace  Congress  at  Washington.  For  a  time  the 
State  attempted  to  remain  neutral,  but  the  State  Legislature  in  Sep- 
tember, 1861,  pronounced  emphatically  in  favor  of  the  Union.  Since 
the  war  the  State  has  been  uniformly  Democratic.  A  new  Constitu- 
tion was  made  in  1890-91.  The  population  of  the  State  in  1792  was 
73,077  ;  in  1890,  1,858,635. 

Kentucky  Resolutions.  These  resolutions  were  the  outgrowth, 
together  with  the  Virginia  Resolutions,  of  a  feeling  that  the  Federal 
party  was  making  a  strained  and  illegitimate  use  of  the  powers  granted 
to  the  Federal  Government  by  the  Constitution.  The  resolutions  were 
directly  due  to  the  passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws.  The  Ken- 
tucky Resolutions  were  framed  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  introduced, 
iu  1798,  into  the  Kentucky  Legislature  by  John  Breckenridge.  They 
were  passed  for  the  purpose  of  defining  the  strict-construction  view  of 
the  relative  powers  of  State  and  Government.  They  were  nine  in 
number.  They  declared  that  the  Union  was  not  based  on  the  "prin- 
ciple of  unlimited  submission  to  the  General  Government ;"  that  the 
Constitution  was  a  compact,  to  which  each  State  was  a  party  as  over 
against  its  fellow  States ;  and  that,  in  all  cases  not  specified  in  the 
compact,  each  party  had  a  right  to  judge  for  itself,  as  well  of  infractions 
as  of  the  mode  and  measure  of  redress.  They  proceeded  to  set  forth 
the  unconstitutionality  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  and  invited 
other  States  to  join  in  declaring  them  void.  No  favorable  response  was 
evoked.  In  1799  the  Kentucky  Legislature  went  further,  and  declared 
a  nullification  of  a  Federal  law  by  a  State  to  be  the  rightful  remedy  in 
cases  of  Federal  usurpation.  Upon  these  resolutions  the  doctrines  of 
nullification  and  secession  were  later  founded. 

Keokuk  ( 1780  ?-i848),  chief  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  tribes  of  Indians, 
possessed  extraordinary  courage  and  powers  of  oratory.  He  used  his 
influence  to  prevent  the  Black  Hawk  War  in  1832.  In  1837  he  made  a 
tour  through  the  principal  cities  in  the  East  and  attracted  great  atten- 
tion by  his  eloquent  speeches.  He  always  maintained  friendship  for  the 
whites. 

Kersalnt,   Gui  Pierre  de  P.    (1742-1793)1  French  naval  com- 


374  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

mander,  served  in  Canada  in  1762,  and  aided  the  colonists  from  1777  to 
1783.  He  captured  two  British  ships  in  1777.  He  commanded  a  fleet 
in  Chesapeake  Bay  in  1783- 
Key,  David  M.,  born  in  1824,  served  in  the  Confederate  army 
throughout  the  war.  He  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as 
a  Democrat  from  1875  to  1877.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Hayes' 
Cabinet  from  1877  to  1880.  From  1880  to  the  present  time  (1894)  he 
has  been  a  U.  S.  District  Judge  in  Tennessee. 

Key,  Francis  Scott  (1 780-1843),  wrote  "The  Star-Spangled  Ban- 
ner ' '  after  watching  the  bombarding  of  Fort  McHenry  by  the  British 
in  1814.  The  song  became  immensely  popular  and  was  adopted  as  the 
National  Hymn. 

Keyes,  Erasmus  D.,  general,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1810. 
He  served  under  General  Scott  from  i860  to  1861.  He  fought  at  Bull 
Run  and  commanded  a  corps  at  Fair  Oaks  and  Richmond.  Retired 
1864.     Died  1895. 

Kickapoos,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians  who  early  centered  around 
the  Illinois.  In  1779  they  joined  Colonel  Clark  against  the  English,  but 
soon  manifested  hostility  toward  the  new  government.  Peace  was  not 
fully  made  until  after  Wayne's  victory  in  1795.  They  then  ceded  apart 
of  their  lands,  as  they  did  also  in  1802,  1803  and  1804.  They  joined 
Tecumseh  and  fought  at  Tippecanoe  in  181 1.  In  the  War  of  1812  they 
allied  themselves  with  the  English,  but  suffered  disastrous  defeats.  In 
1815,  1816  and  1819  they  ceded  more  territory,  and  in  1822  the  majority 
removed  from  the  Illinois  to  the  Osage.  Some  became  roving  bands. 
In  1854  they  were  removed  to  Kansas,  and  in  1863  a  party  migrated  to 
Mexico,  whence  400  returned  to  Indian  Territory  in  1873. 

Kidd,  William,  born  in  Scotland,  died  in  1701.  He  early  proved 
himself  a  bold  and  skillful  navigator.  He  received  a  reward  from  the 
New  York  Council  in  1691  for  his  services  to  the  colonies.  In  1696  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  "Adventure,"  of  thirty  guns  and  154 
men,  to  destroy  piracy.  He  was  led  to  engage  in  the  traffic  he  was 
commissioned  to  destroy,  and  became  one  of  the  most  noted  of  pirates. 
In  1699  he  returned  to  New  England,  was  arrested  and  sent  to  England, 
where  he  was  hanged. 

Kieft,  Wilhelm  (1600 7-1647),  the  fifth  Dutch  Governor  of  New 
Netherlands,  ruled  from  1638  to  1647.  He  concentrated  the  government 
in  himself.  He  improved  the  condition  and  appearance  of  New  Am- 
sterdam, repaired  the  forts,  prohibited  illegal  traffic,  enforced  obe- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  375 

dience  to  the  police  ordinances  of  the  town,  erected  public  houses  and 
improved  the  system  of  land  tenure.  His  rule  was  nevertheless  tyran- 
nical and  despotic,  and  he  was  detested  by  the  people.  He  organized 
the  first  representative  assembly  in  New  Netherlands  in  1641,  but  dis- 
solved it  in  1643.     Ke  was  recalled  in  1647  at  the  request  of  the  colonists. 

Kilbourn  vs.  Thompson,  an  important  case  decided  by  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  in  1880.  Kilbourn  was  summoned  as  a  witness  before 
the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  in  1876,  and  required 
to  answer  questions  and  produce  certain  papers.  This  he  refused  to  do, 
and  accordingly  Thompson,  sergeant-at-arms  of  the  House,  was  ordered 
to  arrest  and  imprison  him  for  forty-five  days  in  the  common  jail  of  the 
District  of  Columbia.  He  was  released  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and 
brought  suit  before  the  Supreme  Court  against  Thompson  and  certain 
Congressmen  on  the  plea  of  illegal  imprisonment.  The  court  decided 
that  the  House  might  punish  its  own  members  for  disorderly  conduct, 
but  that  the  Constitution  did  not  invest  either  House  with  a  general 
power  of  punishment  for  contempt. 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  Judson  (1836-1881),  cavalry  officer,  engaged 
at  Big  Bethel,  Falmouth  and  Bull  Run.  He  commanded  a  cavalry 
brigade  at  Leesburg  in  1862,  and  at  Richmond,  and  a  division  at  Gettj-s- 
burg,  Boonesborough  and  Resaca.  He  took  part  in  Sherman's  march 
to  the  sea.  He  was  Minister  to  Chili  from  1865  to  1868,  and  in  1881. 
He  was  a  popular  Republican  campaign  orator. 

Kilpatrick' S  Raid,  a  cavalry  expedition,  February  25  to  March  4, 
1864,  led  by  the  Federal  general  of  that  name,  who  with  5,000  horsemen 
swept  around  Lee's  army,  then  lying  near  Richmond.  The  object  of 
this  raid  was  to  relieve  the  Union  troopers  imprisoned  in  Libby  prison. 
This  purpose  was  not  accomplished,  but  Kilpatrick  succeeded  in  inflict- 
ing considerable  loss  upon  the  Confederates  by  destroying  railroads  and 
bridges  and  cutting  up  several  of  their  regiments. 

Kimball,  Herbert  C.  (1801-1868),  was  chosen  one  of  the  twelve 
Mormon  apostles  in  1835.  He  aided  in  establishing  the  Mormons  in 
the  valley  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  In  1847  he  became  a  counselor  of 
Brigham  Young. 

King,  Horatio,  born  in  181 1,  was  a  clerk  in  the  U.  S.  Postal  De- 
partment from  1839  to  1854.  He  was  First  Assistant  Postmaster-General 
from  1854  to  1861.  In  1861  he  was  Postmaster-General  in  Buchanan's 
Cabinet.     Died  1897. 

King,  Rufus   (1755-1827),  was  born  in  Maine,  and  graduated  at 


376  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Harvard.  He  came  prominently  forward  as  a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  In 
the  latter  body  he  moved  in  1785  the  provision  against  slavery  in  the 
Northwest  Territory,  afterward  adopted  in  1787.  He  was  a  leading 
member  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and  went  home  to 
work  zealously  for  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  Massachusetts. 
Having  removed  to  New  York  he  was  a  Federalist  U.  S.  Senator  from 
that  State  in  1 789-1 796,  and  wrote  some  of  the  "  Camillus  "  papers. 
He  was  Minister  to  London,  1 796-1803,  and  again  in  the  Senate  1813- 
1825.  In  1 81 6  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Governor,  and  the 
same  year  received  thirty-four  electoral  votes  for  President,  having 
been  the  Federalist  candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1804  and  1808.  His 
last  service  was  again  at  the  Court  of  London  in  1 825-1 826. 

King,  William  R.  (1786-1853),  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  War  Democrat  from  181 1  to  1816.  He  was  Secretary  of  Le- 
gation to  Russia  from  1816  to  1818.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1819  to 
1844,  and  Minister  to  France  from  1844  to  1846.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator 
from  1846  to  1853,  when  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  but  soon  died. 

King  George's  War.  Immediately  upon  the  breaking  out  in 
Europe  of  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession  (1744),  there  began  be- 
tween the  English  and  French  colonies  a  frontier  war  known  as  King 
George's.  The  French  made  an  attack  in  1744  upon  the  northeastern 
settlements,  and  privateers  from  Louisbourg,  in  Cape  Breton,  harassed 
the  New  England  coast.  In  1745  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
proposed  a  colonial  expedition  against  Louisbourg,  the  strongest  French 
fort  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Massachusetts  voted  3, 250  men  and  the 
other  colonies  a  proportionate  number.  William  Pepperell,  of  Maine, 
commanded  the  expedition.  After  a  siege  of  two  months  Louisbourg 
capitulated,  June  17,  1745.  Another  expedition  was  contemplated 
against  Quebec,  but  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  terminated  the  war 
(1748). 

King  William's  War.  In  1689,  upon  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary,  war  was  declared  between  England  and  France,  and  at  once 
spread  to  the  colonies.  During  1690  Governor  Frontenac,  of  Canada, 
sent  three  Indian  expeditions  against  the  English  frontiers.  Many 
settlers  were  killed  and  scalped.  A  colonial  Congress,  the  first  ever 
held,  assembled  at  New  York  in  1690,  and  the  next  summer  Sir  William 
Phipps  was  sent  with  a  fleet  and  1,800  New  England  men  against  Acadia 
and  Port  Royal,  both  of  which  he  captured.  Acadia  was  retaken  by  the 
French  the  next  year.     In  1696  the  French  took  Newfoundland,  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  377 

massacred  the  inhabitants  of  Andover,  Mass.    The  trouble  ended  with 
the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1697. 

King's  Mountain,  Battle  of,  October  7,  1780.  Colonel  Ferguson, 
with  1,200  men,  had  been  dispatched  by  Cornwallis  to  scour  the  high- 
lands of  South  Carolina  and  enlist  the  Tories.  Ferguson  soon  found 
the  backwoodsmen  rising  against  him,  and  was  closely  beset  by  3,000 
militia.  He  took  a  position  at  King's  Mountain  on  the  border  between 
the  Carolinas.  In  his  rear  was  a  precipice,  and  in  front  woods  and 
broken  ground.  One  division  of  the  Americans  lured  him  from  his 
position,  and  the  other  two  then  attacked  his  flanks.  Ferguson  him- 
self fell,  and  389  of  his  men  were  killed  or  wounded,  and  810  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  Americans  lost  their  brilliant  leader,  Colonel  James 
Williams.     Of  their  troops  twenty-eight  were  killed  and  sixty  wounded. 

Kingston,  N.  C.  Here,  December  14,  1862,  General  Foster,  en  route 
with  11,000  Federals  to  destroy  the  important  railroad  junction  at  Golds- 
boro,  fell  in  with  the  Confederate  General  Evans,  commanding  6,000 
troops.  An  engagement  was  immediately  begun.  Evans  was  posted 
between  a  dense  swamp  and  the  bridge  over  the  Neuse  River.  This 
was  speedily  captured  and  the  Confederates  dispersed. — Again,  Marcli27 
and  28,  1865,  there  was  some  sharp  fighting  between  the  Federals  under 
Cox,  of  Schofield's  army,  and  the  Confederates  under  Bragg  and  D.  H. 
Hill.  Bragg  was  in  full  retreat  from  Wilmington  when  he  was  overtaken 
by  Cox.  Bragg  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Goldsboro  March  29,  There 
were  about  12,000  men  engaged  on  either  side. 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  see  appendix,  page  486. 

Kirkwood,  Samuel  J.,  born  in  1813,  was  prosecuting  attorney  ot 
Richland  County,  Ohio,  from  1845  to  1849.  He  was  Governor  of  Iowa 
from  1859  to  1863.  He  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Re- 
publican from  1866  to  1867.  He  was  Governor  of  Iowa  from  1875  to 
1877,  and  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1877  to  1881,  when  he  became  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  in  Garfield's  Cabinet,  serving  till  1882.  Died  September 
1,  1894. 

Kitchen  Cabinet,  a  coterie  of  intimate  friends  of  President  Jack- 
son, who  were  supposed  to  have  more  influence  over  his  actions  than  his 
official  advisers.  They  were  :  General  Duff  Green,  editor  of  the  United 
States  Telegraph  at  Washington,  the  confidential  organ  of  the  adminis- 
tration ;  Major  William  B.  Lewis,  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Second  Auditor 
of  the  Treasury  ;  Isaac  Hill,  editor  of  the  New  Hampshire  Patriot,  and 
Amos  Kendall,  of  Kentucky,  Fourth  Auditor  of  the  Treasury. 

Kittaning,  Burning  of,  September,  1756.  During  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  an  attack  was  made  in  early  September,   1756,  by  Colonel 


378  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Armstrong  upon  Kittaning,  a  nest  of  Delaware  Indians.  The  place  wa9 
completely  surprised,  the  houses  burned,  the  chief  killed,  and  much  am- 
munition furnished  by  the  French  destroyed.  The  English  loss  was 
about  twenty. 

Klamaths,  a  name  given  to  several  Indian  tribes  living  in  Oregon 
and  California.  The  influx  of  whites  into  California  led  to  troubles  in 
1 85 1,  but  a  treaty  soon  restored  peace.  In  1864  they  ceded  large  tracts 
of  land  and  went  on  a  reservation. 

Knights  of  I«rabor,  an  order  founded  in  Philadelphia  in  1869  by 
Uriah  S.  Stevens  and  formally  organized  in  187 1  for  the  protection  of 
working  people  and  the  development  of  educated  labor.  It  was  secret 
until  the  name  was  made  public  in  1881.  By  that  time-nearly  all  trades 
were  represented.  It  is  governed  by  a  national  executive  board  and 
local  assemblies  which  have  power  to  order  "  strikes  "  and  "  boycotts." 
The  membership  is  over  500,000.  The  chief  strike  so  ordered  was  that 
on  the  Missouri  Pacific  system  in  1886.     It  failed. 

Know-Nothings,  Know-Nothing  Party,  a  name  given  to  the 
members  of  the  American  party,  because,  being  members  of  a  secret 
order,  when  they  were  asked  anything  about  its  organization  or  concerns 
they  professed  to  know  nothing  about  the  matter. 

Knox,  Henry  (1750-1806),  an  American  cabinet  officer,  was  born  in 
Boston  and  was  a  bookseller  before  the  Revolution.  He  exchanged  this 
occupation  for  that  of  an  artillery  officer,  fought  at  Bunker  Hill,  and 
obtained  much  credit  for  his  transfer  of  ordnance  in  the  winter  of  1775- 
1776  from  the  Canadian  frontier  and  the  Lake  George  region  to  the 
army  around  Boston.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  artillery, 
fought  with  distinction  at  Trenton,  Brandywine,  Monmouth  and  York- 
town,  and  received  the  grade  of  a  major-general.  He  was  active  in  the 
Cincinnati  Society,  and  became  Secretary  of  War  under  the  old  Congress 
in  1785.  Washington  reappointed  him  to  this  position,  which  he  filled 
until  1795. 

Knox,  John  Jay  (1828-1892),  was  Deputy  Comptroller  of  the  Cur- 
rency from  1867  to  1872  and  Comptroller  from  1872  to  1884.  He  drafted 
and  prepared  the  Coinage  Act  of  1873.  He  wrote  a  "  History  of  Bank- 
ing in  the  United  States." 

Knoxville,  Tenn.,  occupied  by  Burnside  with  a  strong  Federal 
force,  12,000  men,  in  1863,  and  beleagured  and  assaulted  without  success 
November  17  and  29,  by  Longstreet,  who  had  pursued  the  Federal  gen- 
eral thither.     The  first  assault  proving  a  failure,  Longstreet  decided  to 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  379 

reduce  Burnside  by  siege,  but,  fearing  Grant  might  come  up  and  destroy 
him,  he  attempted  another  assault  on  the  29th.  The  Confederates  made 
a  desperate  charge,  pushing  each  other  up  the  parapet  and  many  forcing 
their  way  through  the  embrasures.  They  were  hurled  back  each  time 
with  heavy  loss,  and  at  last  drew  off  to  bury  their  dead.  The  siege  con- 
tinued, however,  for  some  days.  Grant  had  ordered  Sherman  to  go  to 
Burnside 's  assistance.  Sherman  started  to  do  so,  but  meantime  the 
battle  of  Chattanooga  took  place,  and  Sherman  did  not  arrive  until 
December  4.  Then,  after  a  short  battle,  Longstreet  was  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege  and  retire. 

Xnyphausen,  Baron  Wilhelm  von  (1716-1800),  came  to  the 
United  States  as  second  iu  command  of  the  Hessians  in  1776.  In  1777 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  German  auxiliaries.  He  fought  at 
Long  Island,  White  Plains,  Fort  Washington,  Brandywine  and  Mon- 
mouth. During  the  absence  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  1780,  he  was  in 
command  of  New  York.     He  returned  to  Europe  in  1782. 

KosciuSfcko,  Tadeuss  (1746-1817),  came  to  America  from  Poland  in 
1775.  He  was  commissioned  colonel  under  General  Gates  in  1776,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  engineering  skill.  He  superintended  the 
fortification  at  West  Point.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  1783. 
He  was  afterward  prominent  in  the  defense  of  Poland  in  1794,  in  which 
service  he  was  killed, 

Kossta,  Martin.  In  1853  Koszta,  an  Hungarian  refugee,  was  cap- 
tured in  the  harbor  of  Smyrna  and  confined  on  an  Austrian  brig.  The 
U.  S.  agent  demanded  his  release,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  taken  the 
preliminary  steps  for  becoming  an  American  citizen.  Captain  Ingraham, 
commanding  an  American  war-sloop,  threatened  to  fire  on  the  brig  un- 
less Koszta  was  released.  He  was  therefore  turned  over  to  the  French 
Consul  until  the  matter  could  be  arranged,  and  was  afterward  released. 
Ingraham's  action  was  approved  by  both  Houses  of  Congress  the  next 
year,  May  7. 

Ku-Klux  Klan,  also  called  the  "White  League,"  the  "Invisible 
Empire,"  the  "  Knights  of  the  White  Camelia,"  a  society  founded  at 
Pulaski,  Teun.,  in  1866,  during  the  reconstruction  period.  It  was  origi- 
nally organized  for  purposes  of  amusement,  but  spread  rapidly  and  ter- 
rorized the  whole  South  by  its  mysterious  movements.  It  opposed  such 
organizations  as  the  "Loyal  Union  League"  and  "Lincoln  Brother- 
hood," formed  among  the  newly  freed  negroes  by  the  more  disreputable 
class  of  whites  through  the  South.  The  negroes  were  in  some  cases 
persecuted  and  frightened  nearly  to  death  and  prevented  from  voting. 


38o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

The  Klan  was  disbanded  in  1869  by  the  order  of  the  Government. 
Some  members  were  arrested,  but  not  convicted  of  misdemeanor. 


J^abor  Department,  at  first  a  bureau  connected  with  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior.  It  was  established  as  a  department  June  27,  1884. 
The  chief  officer  is  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  dif- 
fuse useful  information  among  the  people  on  labor  questions,  and  to 
report  the  effect  of  customs  laws  upon  the  currency  and  agricultural 
interests. 

I,a  Colle  Mill,  Canada,  March  30,  181 4,  War  of  181 2.  To  clear 
the  way  to  Montreal,  General  Wilkinson,  with  4,000  Americans,  pushed 
on  against  the  British  intrenched  at  La  Colle  Mill.  The  place  was  de- 
fended at  first  by  200  men,  but  this  number  was  increased  to  almost 
1,000  men  during  the  battle  by  reinforcements.  The  British  position 
was  so  well  fortified  that  the  assaults  were  easily  repulsed  -t  counter- 
charges were  likewise  unsuccessful.  After  two  hours  of  desperate  fight- 
ing the  Americans  withdrew  with  a  loss  of  thirteen  killed  and  128 
wounded  ;  the  British  lost  eleven  killed  and  forty-six  wounded.  The 
military  career  of  General  Wilkinson  ended  with  this  battle  ;  he  was 
relieved  from  command,  tried  by  court-martial,  but  acquitted. 

I,a  Corne,  Pierre,  a  French-Canadian  soldier  who  defeated  the 
Indians  at  Lachine  Rapids  in  1747,  and  commanded  at  Grand  Pre\  He 
was  an  emissary  to  the  Acadians  in  1749.     He  fought  at  Quebec. 

I^afayette,  Marquis  de  [Marie  Jean  Paul  Joseph  Roche 
Yves  Gilbert  duMotier]  (September  6,  1757— May  20, 1834),  a  French 
general,  was  born  in  Auvergne  of  a  noble  family  distinguished  in  the 
service  of  the  State.  As  a  boy  he  was  a  page  to  the  queen.  He  was 
still  a  mere  youth  when  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  ex- 
cited the  sympathy  of  many  high-spirited  young  Frenchmen,  Lafayette 
among  others.  Having  equipped  a  ship  at  his  own  expense,  he  sailed 
from  Bordeaux,  with  the  nominal  disapproval  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment, in  April,  1777.  Landing  in  South  Carolina,  he  proceeded  north- 
ward, was  in  July  appointed  a  major-general,  and  soon  became  a  fast 
friend  of  Washington.  He  was  wounded  at  Brandy  wine,  served  at 
Monmouth  and  in  the  Rhode  Island  campaign,  and  sailed  for  France  in 
1779,  returning  in  time  to  sit  on  the  board  of  judges  against  Andre\  In 
1781  he  commanded  in  Virginia  against  Arnold  and  then  against  Corn- 
wallis,  and  earned  distinction  by  hi3  conduct  of  affairs  against  the  able 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  381 

British  general.  After  the  war  he  returned  to  France,  paid  in  1784  a 
short  visit  to  America,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion he  was  for  a  time  one  of  the  foremost  figures.  He  commanded  the 
National  Guard,  but  by  1792  the  Jacobins  removed  him,  as  a  moderate, 
from  the  eastern  department  ;  escaping  to  Belgium  he  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Prussians  and  Austrians  and  was  -imprisoned,  chiefly  at 
Olmiitz,  until  1797.  He  did  not  accept  office  during  the  Napoleonic 
regime,  but  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the  Restora- 
tion period.  In  1824-25  he  visited  the  United  States  and  was  received 
with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  His  last  conspicuous  service  was  as  com- 
mander of  the  National  Guard  in  the  revolutionary  days  of  1830. 

I/afitte,  Jean  (i78o?-i826),  pirate,  came  to  New  Orleans  from 
France  about  1809.  With  his  brother  Pierre  he  engaged  in  smuggling 
and  piracy.  Attempts  to  destroy  their  traffic  were  unsuccessful  and 
they  made  a  settlement  at  Barataria,  on  the  island  of  Grand  Terre.  In 
1814  the  British  made  him  tempting  offers  to  engage  against  the  United 
States  during  the  war,  but  they  were  refused,  and  the  documents  con- 
taining the  proposals  were  sent  to  the  Congress.  Believing  them  for- 
geries the  Government  sent  an  expedition  against  the  buccaneers  and 
destroyed  their  settlement.  They  afterward  joined  the  forces  of  Gen- 
eral Jackson  and  served  during  the  war,  on  promise  of  pardon.  From 
181 7  to  182 1  Lafitte  occupied  Galveston,  nominally  as  Mexican  Gov- 
ernor. 

Lake  Borgne,  Naval  Battle  on.  Here  Admiral  Cochrane,  with 
his  fleet  to  attack  New  Orleans,  had  his  passage  disputed  by  some  small 
war-vessels,  carrying  ill  all  182  men  and  twenty -three  guns,  Lieutenant 
Jones  commander.  He  at  once  sent,  December  14,  1812,  sixty  barges 
with  1,200  men  under  Captain  Lockyer  to  capture  the  American  fleet. 
The  engagement  was  long  and  desperate,  but  resulted  in  a  victory  for 
the  British  at  an  expense  of  300  killed  and  wounded.  The  American 
loss  was  six  killed  and  thirty-five  wounded. 

I/ake  Urie,  Battle  on,  a  celebrated  naval  battle  of  the  War  of  181 2. 
The  American  fleet,  hastily  built  and  equipped  for  the  occasion,  con- 
sisted of  eight  small  vessels,  two  of  twenty  guns  each,  the  rest  only 
fourteen  guns  in  all.  The  "  Lawrence,"  Commodore  Perry,  was  the  flag- 
ship. The  British  squadron,  Commodore  Barclay,  consisted  of  six 
vessels  of  seventy  guns  in  all.  The  battle  for  the  mastery  of  the  lake 
began  September  10,  1813.  Perry's  ship  was  flying  the  motto,  "Don't 
give  up  the  ship."  The  "  Lawrence  "  for  two  hours  bore  the  brunt  of 
the  battle  till  it  was  almost  a  total  wreck.     In  a  small  rowboat,  amid 


382  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY.  • 

the  fire  of  the  British  fleet,  Perry  now  crossed  over  to  the  "Niagara," 
which  was  almost  untouched.  On  reaching  this,  he  at  once  hoisted  his 
pennant  and  dashed  through  the  British  line.  Within  ten  minutes  the 
flagship  and  three  other  British  ships  had  surrendered.  The  other  two 
were  pursued  and  captured.  Perry  at  once  sent  his  famous  dispatch  : 
"  We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours."  The  American  loss 
was  twenty-seven  killed  and  ninety-six  wounded  ;  the  British,  200 
killed  and  600  made  prisoners. 

Lake  George,  Battle  at.  In  the  French  and  Indian  War,  on 
August  26,  1755,  William  Johnson,  with  about  2,000  men,  appeared  at 
Lake  George.  His  purpose  was  to  advance  upon  Ticonderoga.  Dies- 
kau,  the  French  commander,  advanced  with  1,500  men  to  cut  off  John- 
son's communications.  A  division  sent  out  to  prevent  this  was  cut  to 
pieces.  The  French  followed  the  retreating  force  to  Fort  William 
Henry,  but  were  repulsed.  Johnson  did  not  follow  up  his  victory.  The 
English  loss  was  242,  the  French  228. 

Lake  of  the  Woods.  By  the  Treaty  of  1782-83  the  boundary  line 
between  the  British  and  American  possessions  ran  along  the  forty -ninth 
parallel  on  a  line  with  the  source  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Louisiana 
Purchase  in  1803  broke  up  conclusions  as  to  the  fairness  of  this  line. 
Much  dispute  and  negotiation  followed.  Finally,  by  the  Webster-Ash- 
burton  Treaty  of  1842,  the  line  was  agreed  upon  which  ran  across  Lake 
Superior,  then  up  a  waterway  agreed  upon,  thence  down  a  stream  to 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  across  that  lake  to  a  point  at  the  northwest 
corner  (490  23'  55"  north  latitude),  and  then  south  to  the  490  parallel 
and  along  it  westerly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

I,amar,  Lucius,  Q.  C.  (1825- 1893),  represented  Mississippi  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1857  to  J86i.  He  became  a  colonel 
in  the  Confederate  service.  In  1863  he  was  sent  as  a  commissioner  to 
Russia.  He  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from 
1872  to  1877,  and  a  Senator  from  1877  to  1885.  He  was  an  effective 
speaker  and  an  opponent  of  the  "inflation  policy."  He  was  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  from  1885  to  1888,  when  he  be- 
came a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Lamar,  Mirabeau  B.  (1798-1859),  was  commissioned  major  in  the 
Texan  revolution.  He  was  vice-president  of  Texas  from  1836  to  1838, 
and  president  from  1838  to  1841.  He  was  prominent  at  Monterey  dur- 
ing the  Mexican  War. 

Lamont,  Daniel  S.,  of  New  York;  was  born  in  185 1.    He  was  pri- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  383 

vate  secretary  to  President  Cleveland  during  his  first  administration. 
He  became  Secretary  of  War  in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  in  1893. 

Iyancaster,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1718,  and  was  called  Hickory 
Town  until  1730.  In  1777  Congress  sat  here  for  a  few  days,  and  from 
1799  to  1812  it  was  the  capital  of  the  State.     It  became  a  city  in  1818. 

Land  Bank.  In  17 14,  during  Governor  Dudley's  rule  of  Massa- 
chusetts, the  downfall  of  credit  and  general  scarcity  of  circulating 
medium  induced  certain  merchants  to  suggest  the  erection  of  a  Bank  of 
Credit  in  Boston,  founded  on  land  security,  and  to  promote  subscrip- 
tion promised  ^200  annually  to  Harvard  College.  Dudley  was  greatly 
opposed  to  this  measure  and  his  son  wrote  an  able  paper  setting  forth  the 
objections  to  such  a  scheme.  To  forestall  the  action  of  the  bank,  the 
province,  by  law,  issued  ^50,000  to  be  let  out  on  mortgages  of  real  estate, 
and  these  bills  were  in  circulation  during  thirty  years.  The  Land 
Bank  scheme  was  thus  prevented. 

I/and  Office.  This  office  is  charged  with  the  surveying  and  disposal 
of  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States.  Until  1812,  no  such  office  ex- 
isted, the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  acting  as  the  agent  in  the  sale  or 
disposal  of  the  public  lands.  When  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of 
the  General  Land  Office  was  created,  it  remained  a  bureau  of  the 
Treasury  Department,  though  reorganized  in  1836,  until  1849,  when,  on 
the  creation  of  the  Interior  Department,  the  Land  Office  became  a  part 
of  it. 

I,ander,  Frederick  W.  (1822-1862),  conducted  several  trans-con- 
tinental explorations  for  the  United  States.  He  was  appointed  brig- 
adier-general during  the  Civil  War,  and  won  distinction  at  Philippi, 
Hancock  and  Blooming  Gap. 

Lands,  Public.  After  the  Revolution  the  Federal  Government 
found  great  difficulty  in  regulating  the  enormous  tracts  of  public  lands, 
which  had  been  acquired  through  purchase  and  conquest  from  the 
Indians  and  by  the  cessions  of  the  various  States  of  their  outlying  terri- 
tories. In  1787  the  price  of  public  land  was  66%  cents  per  acre,  and 
large  tracts  north  of  the  Ohio  were  disposed  of.  Unauthorized  entries 
were  frequently  made,  however,  and  force  had  to  be  used  for  dislodg- 
ment.  In  1790  Hamilton  proposed  that  the  public  lands  should  be  set 
apart  in  townships  ten  miles  square,  and  disposed  of  to  suit  different 
classes  of  purchasers  on  a  credit  basis.  The  rectangular  system  was  in 
fact  adopted  in  1796.  Up  to  the  year  1800  all  sales  had  been  made  from 
the  territory  now  included  in  Ohio  and  amounted  to  1,484,047  acres.  In 
1800  local  registers  were  established.    The  credit  basis  of  sale  caused 


384  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

numerous  purchases,  but  payment  was  slow  and  in  discouragingly 
small  amounts,  while  the  debtors  constantly  cried  for  relief.  The 
States,  too,  claimed  a  share  in  the  profits.  Upon  the  question  of  ced- 
ing public  lands  to  new  States,  Henry  Clay  prepared  for  the  land  com- 
mittee a  report  reviewing  the  history  of  the  public  lands  and  concluding 
that  it  was  inexpedient  either  to  reduce  the  price  of  the  lands  or  to  cede 
them  to  the  new  States.  In  1835  speculation  in  the  public  lands  became 
popular,  owing  to  the  inflated  condition  of  the  currency,  which  proved 
injurious  to  the  public  interests.  In  1836  Jackson  issued  his  "specie 
circular."  It  was  not  until  in  1840  that  the  right  of  pre-emption  was 
accorded  to  settlers.  By  1850  it  became  common  to  make  grants  of  lands 
to  States,  corporations  and  individuals  for  public  improvements,  such 
as  railroads  and  canals.  In  1862  the  homestead  laws,  granting  free 
settlement  on  public  lands,  tended  greatly  to  simplify  matters  and  to 
promote  real  settlement. 

Lane,  James  Henry  (1814-1866),  commanded  a  brigade  at  Buena 
Vista  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  represented  Indiana  in  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Democrat  from  1853  to  1855.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Free- 
Soil  party  and  prominent  in  the  Kansas  disturbances  from  1855  to  1859. 
He  represented  Kansas  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861 
to  1866. 

Lane,  Joseph  (1801-1881),  served  in  the  Indiana  Legislature  from 
1822  to  1846.  He  was  brevetted  major  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
was  engaged  at  Buena  Vista,  Huamantla  and  Matamoras  and  commanded 
at  Atlixco.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Oregon  to  the  U.  S.  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  1851  to  1857.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1859  to  1861. 
He  was  defeated  as  candidate  for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  on 
the  Breckinridge  ticket  in  i860. 

Langlade,  Charles  M.  de  (1 729-1800),  led  the  Ottawas  in  the  de- 
feat of  General  Braddock  in  1755.  He  aided  Montcalm  during  the  siege 
of  Quebec,  and  was  active  in  the  battle  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham.  In 
1777  he  led  a  band  of  Indians  in  aid  of  the  English  under  Burgoyne. 
From  1780  to  1800  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Canadian  militia. 

Lanier,  Sidney  (1842-1881),  poet,  served  in  the  Confederate  arm}' 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  composed  the  ode  for  the  opening  of  the 
Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876. 

Lansing,  John  (1754-1829),  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1784  to  1788.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  which  framed  the  Constitution,  but 
refused  to  sign  it  and  opposed  its  ratification.     In  1790  he  was  appointed 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  385 

a  Justice  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court,  and  in  1798  became  Chief 
Justice.     From  1S01  to  1814  ne  was  Chancellor  of  the  State. 

IfSi  Perouse,  Jean  T.  de  G.  (1741-1788),  commanded  "  L'Ama- 
zone  "  in  D'Estaing's  flotilla  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  In  1780  he 
destroyed  five  English  vessels,  and  in  1782  captured  the  British  posts 
on  Hudson  Bay.     From  1786  to  1788  he  explored  the  Pacific. 

I,a  Salle,  Sieur  de  [Robert  Cavelier]  (1643-1687),  a  distinguished 
French  explorer,  was  born  at  Rouen.  In  1669  he  emigrated  to  Canada, 
and  began  the  series  of  his  remarkable  journeys  in  the  West.  He 
visited  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Illinois  River,  but  whether  he  at  this 
early  stage  saw  the  Mississippi  is  a  disputed  problem.  In  1673  he  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  the  station  at  Fort  Frontenac  (now  Kingston).  He 
was  again  in  France  in  1677,  but  the  next  year  was  back  in  Canada  and 
had  reached  Niagara.  He  ascended  the  chain  of  lakes  to  Mackinaw, 
thence  up  Lake  Michigan  and  down  the  Illinois  River  to  Peoria. 
Disappointments  followed  ;  but  he  was  able  to  renew  the  canoe  voyage, 
descend  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  which  he  reached  in 
April,  1682,  and  to  claim  the  entire  region  for  Louis  XIV.  Returning 
to  France,  he  organized  an  expedition  which,  in  1684,  sailed  directly 
for  the  mouth  of  the  great  river.  But  the  explorers  landed  by  mistake 
at  Matagorda  Bay,  and  after  harassing  wanderings  La  Salle  was  mur- 
dered by  his  followers  within  the  limits  of  Texas. 

I^as  Quasimas,  a  village  near  Santiago,  Cuba,  where,  on  June  24, 
1898,  a  regiment  of  New  York  Volunteers  were  ambushed  by  the 
Spaniards  and  seventeen  killed.  Notwithstanding  the  fierce  and  un- 
expected attack  the  Americans  charged  up  the  hill,  driving  the  enemy 
before  them  and  captured  a  blockhouse  which  was  one  of  the  outlying 
defenses  of  Santiago.     The  Spanish  loss  was  estimated  to  be  forty. 

I/aud,  William  (1573-1644),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  1633 
to  1641,  sought  to  establish  uniformity  of  worship  by  enforcing  con- 
formity to  the  Church  of  England.  He  increased  the  power  of  the 
clergy  and  punished  all  dissenters.  His  persecutions  of  the  Puritans, 
who  maintained  liberty  of  conscience,  caused  them  to  seek  refuge  in 
other  lands  and  many  came  to  America.  He  was  impeached  in  1642 
and  executed  in  1644. 

I,audonniere,  Rene  de  (d.  after  1586),  founded  a  Huguenot  colony 
in  1564  at  Fort  Caroline,  Florida  (Port  Royal,  S.  C),  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Spaniards  under  Menendez  in  1565.     He  published  a 
history  of  Florida  in  1586. 
Vol.  V.—25 


3 86  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Laurens,  Henry  (1724-1792),  was  a  member  of  the  first  South 
Carolina  Provincial  Congress  in  1775.  He  was  a  delegate  from  South 
Carolina  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1777  to  1780,  and  was  its 
president  from  1777  to  1778.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Holland  in 
1779  ;  was  captured  during  the  voyage  by  the  British,  and  confined  in 
prison  for  fifteen  months.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  In  1782 
he  signed  the  preliminary  Treaty  of  Paris.  Impaired  health  forced 
him  to  retire  from  public  life. 

Laurens,  John  (1756-1782),  became  an  aide  to  Washington  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  and  is  said  to  have  engaged  in  all  of  Wash- 
ington's battles.  He  fought  at  Brandywine,  Monmouth,  Germantown, 
Charleston  and  Savannah.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  a  commissioner 
to  France,  and  obtained  aid  in  money  and  supplies.  He  fought  at  York- 
town,  and  while  serving  under  General  Greene,  was  killed  in  a  skirmish. 

I/aw,  John  (1671-1729),  established  a  private  bank  in  Paris  in  1716. 
In  1718  his  plan  of  a  National  Bank  and  an  issue  of  paper  money  was 
adopted  by  the  French  regent.  In  171 9  depreciated  national  currency 
was  received  at  its  par  value  in  payment  for  shares  in  Law's  scheme  for 
colonizing  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Speculation  and  the  inflated  cur- 
rency caused  a  panic  in  1720. 

Lawrence,  Abbott  (1 792-1855),  represented  Massachusetts  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1835  to  1837.  He  was  Minister  to 
Great  Britain  from  1847  to  1852.  He  founded  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  at  Harvard  College. 

Lawrence,  James  (1781-1813),  was  engaged  in  naval  warfare  on 
the  Barbary  coast  from  1804  to  1809,  commanding  the  "Argus," 
"  Vixen  "  and  "  Wasp."  In  1813,  while  commanding  the  "Hornet," 
he  captured  the  British  brig  ' '  Peacock  ' '  after  an  engagement  of  fifteen 
minutes  with  a  loss  of  only  one  killed  and  two  wounded.  When 
placed  in  command  of  the  "  Chesapeake  "  he  accepted  a  challenge  from 
Captain  Broke  of  the  "  Shannon."  His  defeat  was  caused  by  the  im- 
perfect discipline  of  the  newly  shipped  crew.  Lawrence  was  mortally 
wounded.     His  last  injunction  was,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

Lawrence,  Kan.,  was  founded  in  1854,  and  became  the  headquarters 
of  the  anti-slavery  settlers  during  the  struggle  which  followed.  On 
August  25,  1863,  the  town  was  burned  by  Confederate  guerrillas  under 
Quantrell,  and  145  of  the  inhabitants  massacred. 

Lawton,  Henry  W.,  a  native  of  Ohio,  joined  the  army  from 
Indiana  as  sergeant  Company  E.,  9th  Indiana  Volunteers,  April,  1863. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  387 

Became  1st  lieutenant  iu  30th  Indiana  regiment  and  promoted  to 
captain  May  17,  1862,  and  brevet  colonel  March,  1865.  He  entered 
the  regular  service  July  28,  1866,  as  2d  lieutenant,  41st  Infantry  ;  captain, 
March,  1879  ;  major,  1888  ;  lieut. -colonel,  1889.  He  was  appointed  major 
general  of  volunteers,  July  8,  1898,  and  corps  commander  in  the  Philip- 
pines, 1899.  General  Lawton  distinguished  himself  fighting  the  Span- 
ish in  Cuba,  and  added  to  his  reputation  for  gallantry  by  his  resolute 
pursuit  of  the  Filipinos,  by  whom  he  was  killed  while  leading  an  attack 
against  a  strong  force  at  San  Mateo,  December  19,  1899.  The  loss  of 
this  brave  and  capable  officer  caused  great  public  sorrow  throughout  the 
United  States.  A  fund  of  $92,000  was  promptly  raised  by  popular  sub- 
scription for  his  widow,  and  his  remains  were  brought  back  to  America, 
where,  after  lying  in  state  at  several  cities,  they  were  buried  in  Arling- 
ton Cemetery,  Washington,  February  9,  1900,  the  funeral  being  at- 
tended by  the  President  and  his  Cabinet. 

I,ea,  Henry  C,  born  in  1825,  of  Philadelphia,  organized  the  system 
of  municipal  bounties  during  the  Civil  War.  He  wrote  ' (  Superstition 
and  Force,"  a  "  History  of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  and 
other  scholarly  works  on  medieval  history. 

"I,eander."  April  25,  1806,  while  the  feeling  in  this  country  was 
intensely  bitter  toward  Great  Britain,  a  shot  from  the  British  war-ship 
"  Leander,"  then  lying  off  Sandy  Hook,  killed  John  Pierce,  helmsman 
on  an  American  coaster.  The  citizens  of  New  York  denounced  the 
outrage  in  a  mass  meeting,  and  called  upon  the  National  Government 
for  better  protection  of  the  harbor.  A  proclamation  of  the  President 
interdicted  British  supplies  and  ordered  the  arrest  of  the  "  Leander's  " 
captain,  if  found  within  our  jurisdiction. 

I/ear,  Tobias  (1762-1816),  became  private  secretary  to  Washington 
in  1785,  and  for  several  years  superintended  his  domestic  affairs.  He 
was  a  commissioner  to  conclude  peace  with  Tripoli  in  1805. 

I^eary,  Richard  P.  A  captain  in  the  United  States  navy,  who 
was  appointed  by  President  McKinley  military  governor  of  the  Island 
of  Guam,  July,  1899,  with  headquarters  at  Agana,  the  capital. 

X/eavenworth,  Kan.,  was  settled  in  1854.  Fort  Leavenworth  was 
established  near  the  site  of  the  city  in  1827. 

I^eavitt,  Joshua  (1794-1873),  was  an  ardent  temperance  reformer 
and  anti-slavery  advocate.  He  was  chairman  of  the  national  committee 
of  the  Liberty  party  from  1844  to  1847.  He  was  connected  with  the 
New  York  Independent  from  184S  to  1873. 


388  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Lechford,  Thomas  (i59o?-i644),  came  to  America  from  England 
in  1638,  but  returned  in  1641.  He  wrote  "Plaine  Dealing  or  Newes 
from  New  England,"  which  contains  much  valuable  information. 

I,ecky,  William  U.  H.,  born  in  1838,  English  historian,  wrote  a 
"History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in 
Europe,"  and  a  "  History  of  European  Morals  from  Augustus  to  Charle- 
magne," but  is  of  especial  interest  to  Americans  as  the  author  of  a 
14  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  publication  of  which 
began  in  1878,  which  gives  an  admirable  account  of  the  American 
Revolution  from  the  modern  English  point  of  view. 

I<ecompton  Constitution,  a  Constitution  adopted  by  the  pro- 
slavery  party  of  Kansas  in  a  convention  held  at  Lecompton,  September 
5,  1857.  The  Constitution  sanctioned  slavery,  and  prohibited  the  pas- 
sage of  emancipation  laws  by  the  Legislature.  It  was  provided  that  the 
Constitution  should  not,  as  a  whole,  be  submitted  to  the  people  of  the 
territory  ;  they  were  only  to  vote  for  "  the  Constitution  with  slavery  " 
or  "  the  Constitution  without  slavery."  Free-State  settlers  abstaining, 
the  former  alternative  prevailed  by  a  large  majority.  Later,  without 
authorization  from  the  convention,  the  Territorial  Legislature  ordered  a 
vote  on  the  Constitution  as  a  whole.  It  was  voted  down  by  a  large 
majority,  slave-State  settlers  now  abstaining. 

I/edyard,  William  (1750-1781),  defended  Fort  Griswold,  Conn., 
with  157  untrained  men  against  the  British  in  1781.  After  the  surrender 
the  British,  commanded  by  Major  Bromfield,  massacred  the  entire  gar- 
rison. 

I*ee,  Ann  (1736-1784),  founded  the  "Shakers"  in  1771.  She  de- 
clared herself  the  "  second  appearing  of  Christ."  She  emigrated  from 
England  to  the  United  States  in  1774  and  established  her  colony  at 
Watervliet,  N.  Y. 

I^ee,  Arthur  (1740-1792),  of  Virginia,  brother  of  R.  H.  Lee  and 

Francis  Lightfoot  Lee,  was  prominent  as  author  of  the  "Monitor's 
Letters,"  "An  Appeal  to  the  English  Nation"  and  "Junius  Ameri- 
canus."  In  1770  he  was  appointed  London  agent  of  the  Massachusetts 
colony.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  with  Franklin  and  Deane  to  secure 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  France.  In  1777  and  1778  he  was  commissioner 
to  Spain  and  Prussia.  From  1782  to  1785  he  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress.  From  1784  to  1789  he  was  a  member  of  the  Board  of 
Treasury  of  the  Confederation.  He  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution. He  was  a  man  of  learning  and  talents,  but  vain  and  captious. 
Life  by  R.  H.  Lee. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  389 

I,ee,  Charles  (1731-1782),  was  born  in  England,  and  served  in  the 
army  at  Braddock's  defeat  and  through  the  French  and  Indian  War. 
Some  years  of  miscellaneous  experiences  in  the  Portuguese  service  and 
on  the  Polish  staff,  interspersed  with  pamphleteering,  left  him  a 
lieutenant-colonel  on  half-pay.  Removing  to  America  in  1773  he  con- 
trived to  pose  as  a  great  military  light,  and  was  in  1775  appointed  the 
second  in  rank  of  the  major-generals.  He  was  at  the  siege  of  Boston, 
commenced  the  fortifications  of  New  York,  and  received  the  credit  of 
the  victory  at  Charleston  in  1776.  In  the  autumn  campaign  of  that 
year  he  disregarded  Washington's  orders  to  leave  Northcastle,  and  was 
soon  afterward  captured  at  Baskinridge  in  New  Jersey.  He  had  in- 
trigued against  Washington,  and  it  has  recently  been  proved  that  in 
captivity  he  negotiated  with  the  Howes.  He  was  exchanged  in  time 
to  receive  command  of  the  van  at  Monmouth ;  his  disgraceful  retreat 
there  is  well  known.  After  the  battle  he  was  suspended  for  disobe- 
dience, misbehavior  and  disrespect,  and  was  eventually  dismissed  from 
the  army.     He  died  in  obscurity  at  Philadelphia. 

I*ee,  Charles  (1758-1815),  was  a  delegate  from  Virginia  to  the 
Continental  Congress.  He  was  naval  officer  of  the  Potomac  till  1795. 
He  was  U.  S.  Attorney-General  from  1795  to  1801. 

I^ee,  Fitfchugh,  born  in  1835,  was  promoted  major-general  in  the 
Confederate  army,  and  served  as  a  cavalry  commander  in  all  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  He  was  elected  Governor  of 
Virginia  in  1885.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee.  Consul-Gen- 
eral at  Havana  1896,  major-general  of  volunteers  1898,  Governor  of 
Havana  province  1900 

I/ee,  Francis  Itightfoot  (1 734-1797).  brother  of  R.  H.  Lee  and  A. 
Lee,  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  from  1765  to 
1772.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1775  to 
1779.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  aided  in  draft- 
ing the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

I,ee,  Henry  (1756-1818),  a  Revolutionary  partisan  hero,  was  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  family  of  Lees,  and  graduated  at  Princeton. 
He  attained  distinction  in  the  latter  half  of  the  war  as  major  of  a 
partisan  corps  called  "  Lee's  Legion,"  whence  he  derived  his  epithet 
of  "  Light- Horse  Harry."  He  performed  a  brilliant  exploit  in  1779, 
in  the  capture  of  Paulus  Hook,  and  received  a  gold  medal.  In  1781  he 
ably  covered  the  retreat  of  Greene's  army,  took  a  distinguished  part  at 
Guilford,  Eutaw  Springs,  and  the  operations  in  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia.     He  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  of  the  rati- 


390  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

fying  convention  of  1788,  was  a  Federalist,  and  Governor  of  Virginia  In 
1 792-1 795.  In  1794  he  led  the  expedition  to  suppress  the  Whiskey 
Rebellion.  As  Congressman,  1799-1801,  it  was  his  lot  to  pronounce  the 
eulogy  on  Washington,  containing  the  famous  characterization,  "  First 
in  war,"  etc.  His  death  was  caused  by  injuries  inflicted  by  a  Baltimore 
mob  in  1814. 

I^ee,  Richard  Henry  (1732-1794),  a  member  of  a  noted  Virginia 
family,  was  educated  in  England.  For  many  years,  1 761-1788,  he  was 
a  leader  in  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  and  Legislature.  He  ear- 
nestly opposed  the  slave  trade,  the  Stamp  Act,  and  was  one  of  the  first 
among  the  patriot  chiefs  to  suggest  the  employment  of  the  famous  com- 
mittees of  correspondence.  As  a  delegate  to  the  first  Continental  Con- 
gress he  was  on  the  committee  to  draft  the  address,  and  in  the  Second 
Congress  he  drew  up  the  address  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  On 
June  7,  1776,  he  moved  the  resolutions  of  independence.  Meanwhile, 
as  the  war  proceeded,  Lee  was  active  in  strictly  Virginian  as  well  as  in 
national  matters,  and  opposed  vigorously  the  paper-money  policy  in 
his  State.  He  was  president  of  Congress,  and  in  1788  he  was  an  Anti- 
Federalist  champion  for  the  rejection  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
From  1789  to  1792  he  was  U.  S.  Senator. 

I,ee,  Robert  Edward  (January  19,  1807— October  12,  1870),  the 
great  general  of  the  Confederacy,  was  the  son  of  Henry  Lee  ( ' '  Light- 
Horse  Harry  ")  and  was  born  at  Stratford,  Va.  He  was  graduated  with 
high  standing  at  West  Point  in  1829.  In  the  Mexican  War  he  served 
as  chief  engineer  on  the  staff  of  General  Wool,  and  was  distinguished 
in  the  advance  on  the  capital,  especially  at  Chapultepec.  From  1852  to 
1855  he  was  commandant  at  West  Point.  In  1859  he  M*as  sent  against 
John  Brown's  raid  on  Harper's  Ferry,  and  he  had  reached  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel  by  1861.  When  his  State  seceded,  Lee  resigned, 
April  20,  from  the  U.  S.  army,  accepted  the  command  of  the  State 
forces,  and  in  May  was  appointed  a  general  in  the  Confederate  army. 
For  a  year  he  was  inconspicuously  employed  in  Virginia  and  South 
Carolina.  The  wounding  of  General  J.  B.  Johnston  at  Fair  Oaks, 
May  31,  1862,  called  Lee  to  supreme  command.  Henceforth  his  his- 
tory is  that  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  He  commanded  in  the 
Seven  Days'  battles,  beat  Pope  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
immediately  began  his  first  invasion  of  the  North.  Chance  revealed 
his  plans  to  McClellan.  His  prestige  was  not  impaired  by  the  drawn 
battle  of  Antietam,  and  the  army  and  its  general  gained  new  honors  by 
the  victories  of  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville.  His  second  in- 
vasion of  the  North  resulted  disastrously  at  Gettysburg.     In  the  next 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  39  t 

year,  1864,  he  was  pitted  against  Grant,  whom  he  opposed  stubbornly 
at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  and  Cold  Harbor.  The  long  siege  of 
Petersburg  and  Richmond  followed.  Lee's  efforts  to  ward  off  the 
break-up  of  the  Confederacy  were  unavailing.  Compelled  to  evacuate 
Richmond  on  April  2,  1865,  he  sought  to  effect  a  junction  with  John- 
ston, but  was  hemmed  in  by  Grant's  army  and  forced  to  surrender  at 
Appomattox  April  9.  Soon  afterward  he  became  president  of  Washing- 
ton College  in  Lexington,  Va.  (now  Washington  and  Lee  University), 
and  remained  there  until  his  death.  Lee  was  a  man  of  singularly 
noble  character,  and  much  revered  and  beloved. 

I^egal-Tender  Cases.  After  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War 
Congress  was  compelled  in  1862  to  issue  $150,000,000  in  Treasury  notes, 
and  made  them  legal  tender  for  payment  of  private  debts  and  all  public 
dues  except  duties  on  imports  and  interest  on  the  public  debt.  These 
notes  became  the  circulating  medium  to  a  large  extent.  The  constitu- 
tional validity  of  these  Legal-Tender  Acts  was  strongly  contested, 
especially  in  their  application  to  debts  contracted  prior  to  their  passage. 
Their  constitutionality  was  generally  maintained  by  the  State  courts, 
however.  In  1869  this  question  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  in  the  case  of  Hepburn  vs.  Griswold.  The  validity  of  the 
acts  was  in  this  instance  maintained  only  in  so  far  as  it  did  not  affect 
the  obligations  of  contracts  made  prior  to  their  passage.  A  year  later, 
in  the  case  of  Knox  vs.  Lee,  this  decision  was  overruled,  and  the  con- 
stitutionality of  the  act  was  upheld  in  its  applicability  to  pre-existing 
debts,  though  by  a  majority  of  the  court  only.  The  composition  of  the 
court  had  meantime  been  altered,  two  new  judges  having  been  ap- 
pointed. 

I^egfare,  Hugh  S.  (1789- 1843),  was  an  anti-nullification  member  of 
the  South  Carolina  Legislature  from  1820  to  1822  and  1824  to  1830.  He 
was  State  Attorney-General  from  1830  to  1832.  He  was  charge*  d'af- 
faires at  Brussels  from  1832  to  1836.  Was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Con- 
gress as  a  Union  Democrat  from  1837  to  i839,and  was  Attorney-General 
of  the  United  States  in  Tyler's  Cabinet  from  1841  to  1843,  and  Secretary 
of  State  in  1843. 

Legislature.  The  first  elected  representative  legislature  in  Amer- 
ica was  that  which  met  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1619.  The  colonies  of 
Southern  New  England  started  with  primary  assemblies,  from  which 
representative  assemblies  were  soon  developed.  In  New  York  the  first 
true  legislature  was  assembled  in  1683.  In  general  the  colonial  legisla- 
tures were  modeled  on  the  British  Parliament,  the  procedure  of  which 


392  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

they  followed  closely.  To  king,  lords,  and  commons  corresponded  the 
governor,  the  council  appointed  by  him,  and  the  representatives  of  the 
people,  variously  called  house  of  burgesses,  house  of  delegates,  assem- 
bly, or  house  of  representatives.  These  last  were  elected  by  voters 
having  a  property  qualification,  two  members  or  more  for  each  county 
in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  one  or  two  from  each  town  in  New 
England.  The  Revolution  broke  up  the  upper  houses  or  councils,  and 
the  new  constitutions  substituted  what  in  Virginia  (1776)  and  then  in 
the  other  States  was  called  a  senate.  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia  had  at 
first  legislatures  of  but  one  house.  The  legislatures  of  the  Southern 
States  were  generally  given  the  power  to  choose  the  governor.  The 
Constitution  of  1787  gave  the  State  Legislatures  the  right  to  choose 
U.  S.  Senators.  All  the  amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution  have 
been  ratified  by  them.  In  general  it  has  been  felt  that  State  Legisla- 
tures have  l^een  declining  in  excellence  during  the  last  two  generations. 
State  constitutions  have  imposed  more  and  more  restrictions  upon  their 
action. 

Lei  and  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Palo  Alto,  Cal.,  was  founded 
by  means  of  the  gifts  of  Senator  Stanford  in  memory  of  his  son. 
These  gifts  in  land  and  money  are  estimated  at  twenty  million  dollars. 
The  university  opened  in  October,  1891. 

Lenox,  James  (1800-18S0),  was  founder  of  the  Lenox  Library, 
New  York,  which  in  many  respects  surpasses  in  value  any  other  library 
of  Americana.  The  collection  of  rare  books  and  manuscripts  is  valued 
at  nearly  a  million  dollars. 

I/evis,  Francois  G.,  Due  de  (1720-1787),  was  second  in  command 
at  Quebec  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Eritish  in  1759,  an<I  succeeded 
Montcalm  in  command  of  the  French  forces.  In  1760  he  was  forced  to 
capitulate  to  the  English. 

I<ewis,  Meriwether  (1 774-1809),  explorer,  was  secretary  to  Presi- 
dent Jefferson  from  1801  to  1803.  He  commanded  an  expedition  with 
William  Clark  across  the  continent  from  1803  to  1806.  They  ascended 
the  Missouri  River,  named  three  of  its  tributaries  the  Jefferson,  Madison 
and  Gallatin  Rivers,  and  descended  the  Columbia  River  to  its  mouth. 
From  1807  to  1809  he  was  Governor  of  Missouri  Territory. 

IVewis,  Morgan  (1754-1844),  served  in  the  Continental  army  from 
1776  to  1783,  commanding  at  Stone  Arabia  and  Crown  Point.  He  was 
Chief  Justice  of  New  York  from  1S01  to  1804  and  Governor  from  1804  to 
180*.  He  was  a  major-general  in  the  Niagara  campaign  and  commanded 
at  Sackett's  Harbor  and  French  Creek. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  393 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition.  In  1804-06,  Meriwether  Lewis 
and  William  Clark,  under  orders  from  President  Jefferson,  ascended  the 
Missouri  to  its  sources,  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  struck  the  head 
waters  of  the  Columbia  River,  floated  down  that  river  to  its  mouth  and 
explored  a  great  deal  of  the  Oregon  country.  Their  explorations  cov- 
ered nearly  all  the  country  south  of  the  490  parallel.  Their  company 
was  composed  of  nine  Kentuckians  and  fourteen  soldiers.  They  started 
for  the  East  March  23,  1806,  having  explored  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Northwest  regions.     History,  edited  by  Coues. 

I/ewisites,  in  New  York  political  history,  the  followers  of  Morgan 
Lewis,  who  was  related  by  marriage  to  the  Livingstons,  and  was  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York  from  1804  to  1807.  In  the  latter  year  the  Lewisites 
and  Burrites  united  and  became  known  as  "  Martling  men,"  later 
Bucktails. 

Lexington,  Mass.,  Battle  of,  April  19,  1775.  On  the  night  of 
April  18,  1775,  8,000  British  regulars  were  secretly  dispatched  from 
Boston  to  arrest  Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock  at  Lexington,  and 
to  seize  the  military  stores  collected  at  Concord.  News  of  their  ap- 
proach was  spread  through  the  intervening  towns  by  Paul  Revere,  and 
at  daybreak,  when  the  British  arrived  at  Lexington,  they  found  fifty 
minute-men  drawn  up  on  the  village  green.  The  advance  guard,  under 
Major  Pitcairn,  fired  upon  them,  but  they  held  their  ground  until  the 
main  body  of  the  British,  under  Lieutenant-Colonel  Smith,  appeared. 
They  then  gave  way,  and  the  regulars  pushed  forward  to  Concord. 
Here  they  were  unable  to  discover  any  military  stores,  and  while  they 
were  committing  some  depredations  affairs  took  a  sudden  turn.  200 
regulars,  who  guarded  Concord  bridge,  were  routed  by  some  400 
minute-men  who  had  hastily  collected  from  neighboring  towns.  The 
position  of  the  British  thus  became  perilous.  About  noon  they  started 
for  Boston,  subjected  to  a  galling  fire  from  all  sides.  Exhausted  by 
their  march  of  eighteen  miles  and  their  fast  of  fourteen  hours,  they  fell 
into  a  disorderly  flight,  and  were  saved  only  by  the  timely  assistance 
of  Lord  Percy,  who  came  from  Boston  with  1,200  reinforcements  and 
two  cannon.  Seven  miles  from  Boston  their  passage  was  for  a  while 
disputed  by  a  force  of  militia.  The  whole  countryside  was  out  against 
them  ;  once  more  their  retreat  became  a  rout,  and  at  sunset  they  en- 
tered Charlestown  under  the  welcome  protection  of  the  fleet,  on  the 
full  run,  just  in  time  to  avoid  an  encounter  with  Colonel  Pickering  and 
700  Essex  militia.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  273,  that  of  the  Amer- 
icans ninety-three.  In  the  first  place  the  battle  showed  that  the  colon- 
ists could  not  be  frightened  into  submission.     It  also  showed  the 


394  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

efficiency  and  promptness  of  the  town  militia.  Twenty-three  towns 
were  represented  among  the  wounded  and  slain,  and  by  the  end  of  the 
week  16,000  men  were  besieging  Gage  in  Boston. 

I/exing-ton,  Mo.,  assaulted  and  captured  August  20,  1861,  by 
28,000  Confederates,  led  by  McCulloch.  Mulligan,  with  a  National 
force  of  3,000,  held  the  town.  Repeated  attacks  were  made  and  thirteen 
pieces  of  artillery  were  brought  to  bear  upon  the  besieged,  but  the 
latter  held  out  bravely  for  a  long  time.  Finally  the  Confederates  con- 
structed movable  breastworks  of  hemp  bales,  and,  rolling  these  before 
them,  they  compelled  Colonel  Mulligan  to  surrender  unconditionally, 
the  water  supply  of  the  town  having  given  out  and  he  being  severely 
wounded. 

I/eyden,  an  inland  city  of  Holland,  where  the  Pilgrims,  after  leaving 
England  and  living  for  a  time  in  Amsterdam,  settled  in  May,  1609. 
They  were  about  100  English  men,  women  and  children.  A  church 
was  organized  in  161 1  and  for  a  time  things  went  well.  But  contro- 
versies arose  and  they  could  not  accommodate  themselves  to  the  condi- 
tions of  life  in  Deyden.  In  161 7  Carver  and  Cushman  were  dispatched 
to  London  to  negotiate  with  the  Virginia  Company  for  settlement  on 
their  territory.  An  agreement  was  speedily  concluded.  In  July,  1620, 
a  small  ship,  the  "Speedwell,"  was  bought  and  fitted  out  in  Holland, 
and  the  Pilgrims  left  Leyden  for  Delfthaven,  thence  to  embark  for 
Southampton,  where  the  "  Mayflower"  awaited  them. 

Ifibby  Prison,  a  large  building  in  Richmond,  Va.,  named  for  its 
owner,  who  used  it  as  a  ship-chandlery  before  the  Civil  War.  During 
the  war  it  became  famous  as  a  Confederate  military  prison,  in  which 
many  Federal  soldiers  were  confined.  In  1892  it  was  removed,  brick 
by  brick,  and  set  up  in  Chicago  as  a  museum,  but  the  enterprise  proved 
a  failure. 

liberal  Republican  Party,  an  abortive  offshoot  from  the  regular 
Republican  party  in  1870-72.  Its  origin  was  a  reaction  from  the  coer- 
cive measures  to  maintain  the  newly-granted  rights  of  the  negroes  and 
suppress  the  Ku-Klux  organizations.  A  union  of  the  Liberal  Repub- 
licans and  the  Democrats  was  first  formed  with  considerable  success 
in  Missouri  in  1870-71.  They  advocated  universal  suffrage,  universal 
amnesty,  a  reform  of  the  tariff  and  a  "  cessation  of  the  unconstitutional 
laws  to  cure  Ku-Klux  disorders. ' '  A  general  convention  assembled  at 
Cincinnati  in  May,  1872,  and  nominated  Horace  Greeley  for  President, 
whom  the  Democrats  also  nominated.     He  was  defeated  because  many 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  395 

Democrats  refused  to  vote  for  him.     B.  Gratz  Brown,  of  Missouri,  was 
the  candidate  for  Vice-President. 

Liberia,  a  negro  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  It  was  at  first 
a  colony  of  free  negroes  founded  by  the  American  Colonization  Society 
in  1816  for  the  betterment  of  the  negroes  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
at  first  governed  by  the  whites,  but  became  independent  in  1847.  After 
the  Civil  War  many  of  the  freed  slaves  in  the  United  States  were  per- 
mitted and,  indeed,  encouraged  to  migrate  to  Liberia,  and  financial  aid 
was  afforded  them  to  do  so.  A  treaty  of  commerce  was  concluded  ill 
1862. 

I/iberty  Bell,  cast  in  London  and  received  at  Philadelphia  in  August, 
I752>  when  it  was  hung  in  the  Pennsylvania  State  House,  afterward 
known  as  Independence  Hall.  The  bell  was  broken  up  and  recast  in 
April,  and  again  in  June,  1753.  It  announced  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, July  4,  1776.  It  was  cracked  July  8,  1835,  while  being  tolled 
in  memory  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall.  The  bell  was  exhibited  in  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Building  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at 
CLicago  in  1893. 

I/iberty  Tree,  the  tree  on  which  a  Boston  mob  hanged  the  effigy  of 
Andrew  Oliver,  of  Boston,  in  August,  1765.  Oliver  had  agreed  to  be- 
come distributor  of  stamps  under  the  famous  Stamp  Act  passed  that 
year. 

I/ibraries.  The  first  library  established  in  the  United  States  was 
that  of  Harvard  College,  founded  in  1638.  In  1700  a  public  library 
was  founded  in  New  York  City.  It  was  afterward  converted,  in  1754, 
into  a  subscription  library.  Dr.  Franklin  and  his  associates,  in  1731, 
started  in  Philadelphia  a  library  company  and  the  first  subscription 
library.  The  Library  of  Congress  was  begun  in  1800,  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  seat  of  government  at  Washington.  The  Public  Library  of 
Boston,  founded  in  1848,  stands  next  to  the  Library  of  Congress  in  point 
of  the  number  and  value  of  its  collections.  It  contains  over  500,000 
volumes  and  has  eleven  subsidiary  branches.  The  school-district 
library  system  originated  in  New  York  State  in  1838  and  has  been 
adopted  by  a  large  number  of  the  other  States.  From  1820  to  1870 
twenty-nine  subscription  or  mercantile  libraries  were  established  in 
various  cities.  There  are  now  in  the  United  States  nearly  4,000  libraries 
of  1,000  volumes  or  more,  which  are  more  or  less  free  and  public. 
Their  increase  and  success  throughout  the  Union  has  been  enormous. 

library  of  Congress.  Founded  by  Act  of  Congress  April  24, 1800, 
and  permanently  organized  on  the  basis  of  a  report  made  by  John  Ran- 


396  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

dolph  December  21,  1801,  $5,000  being  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of 
books.  It  was  and  is  now  located  in  the  Capitol  Building.  When  the 
British  held  Washington  for  a  single  day,  August  25,  1814,  the  Capitol 
was  burned  and  with  it  the  library.  The  same  Congress  bought  6,700 
volumes  from  Thomas  Jefferson  for  $23,950.  In  1824  an  Act  of  Congress 
provided  for  an  annual  appropriation  of  $5,000  for  purchasing  books, 
and  the  library  was  placed  in  the  central  Capitol  Building.  In  185 1  a 
second  fire  destroyed  about  30,000  volumes.  In  1852  $75,000  were  ap- 
propriated for  the  reconstruction  of  the  rooms  and  $75,000  for  the  imme- 
diate purchase  of  books.  The  library  numbered  75,000  books  in  i860. 
A  new  and  separate  library  building  is  now  fully  completed,  the  finest 
of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  library  now  numbers  more  than  675,000 
volumes. 

Lick,  James  (1796-1876),  bequeathed  his  immense  fortune  to  philan- 
thropic enterprises.  He  founded  the  famous  Lick  Observatory  at  Mount 
Hamilton,  Cal. 

I^ieber,  Francis  (1800-1872),  born  and  educated  in  Germany,  came 
to  America  in  1827.  He  published  the  Encyclopaedia  Americana  in 
1832.  He  ardently  upheld  the  Union  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
often  consulted  by  the  executive.  He  wrote  many  important  political 
works,  among  them  a  "  Manual  of  Political  Ethics,"  "  Legal  and  Polit- 
ical Hermeneutics  "  and  "Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government. "  He 
was  professor  in  the  South  Carolina  College  from  1838  to  1856  and  in 
Columbia  College  from  1857  to  1872. 

lieutenant-General.  This  office  was  first  created  in  1798,  General 
Washington  being  chosen  to  fill  it.  It  was  abolished  in  1799,  and  was 
not  revived  until  1855,  being  then  filled  by  General  Winfield  Scott.  In 
1864  General  Grant  was  appointed  to  this  grade,  and  on  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  generalship,  William  T.  Sherman  was  chosen  lieutenant- 
general  in  1866.  General  Philip  H.  Sheridan  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  in  1883.     With  his  death  in  1888  the  office  became  extinct. 

lightning  Rod.  The  first  one  ever  used  in  the  world  was  set  up 
by  Benjamin  Franklin  on  his  dwelling-house  southeast  corner  of  26 
and  Race  Streets,  Philadelphia,  1752. 

Isiliuokalani,  born  in  1838,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Hawaii  in 
1891.  She  was  deposed  and  a  provisional  government  established  in 
1893.  She  charged  the  U.  S.  Minister  with  complicity  in  the  revolution, 
and  attempted  in  vain  to  secure  restoration. 

I/incoln,  Abraham  (February  12,  1809— April  15,  1865),  the  six- 
teenth President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hardin  County,  Kv. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY.  397 

Both  there  and  \n  Indiana,  to  which  in  1816  the  family  removed,  as 
well  as  in  Illinois,  whither  they  went  in  1830,  Lincoln  had  the  priva- 
tions and  also  the  training  of  a  backwoodsman's  life.  His  later  epithet 
of  the  "  rail-splitter  "  is  a  reminiscence  of  this  early  period,  and  he  also 
about  this  time  made  a  flat-boat  voyage  to  New  Orleans.  In  the  Black 
Hawk  War  of  1832  he  served  as  captain  and  private.  He  tried  keeping 
store  and  failed,  studied  law,  was  postmaster  of  New  Salem  in  Illinois, 
and  deputy  surveyor  of  the  county.  As  a  politician  he  had  better  suc- 
cess, and  after  one  defeat  served  in  the  Legislature  from  1834  to  1842. 
Meanwhile  he  removed  to  Springfield  and  built  up  a  law  practice. 
From  1847  to  JS49  ne  was  a  Whig  Congressman,  but  was  not  notably 
prominent.  His  importance  dates  from  the  Kansas-Nebraska  contro- 
versy. In  its  progress  he  became  the  Republican  State  leader,  and  in 
1858  he  took  part  with  Stephen  A.  Douglas  in  a  series  of  joint  debates 
in  canvassing  for  the  U.  S.  Senatorship.  Lincoln  was  defeated,  but  the 
discussion  had  aroused  great  interest,  and  his  utterances,^,  g.,  "a 
house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand,"  brought  him  into  national 
prominence.  In  February,  i860,  he  delivered  a  remarkable  political 
speech  at  Cooper  Institute,  New  York.  He  was  pressed  for  the  Presi- 
dency by  many  Western  Republicans  in  the  Chicago  Convention  in 
May,  though  Seward  was  in  the  lead  at  the  outset.  Amid  great  excite- 
ment Lincoln  was  nominated  on  the  third  ballot,  and  elected,  by  180 
electoral  votes,  over  Douglas,  Breckenridge  and  Bell.  This  first  victory 
of  the  Republicans  decided  the  Secessionists,  and  when  the  new 
President  delivered  his  conciliatory  inaugural  address  the  country  was 
drifting  toward  civil  war.  In  the  Cabinet  Seward  had  the  Department 
of  State,  Chase  the  Treasury,  Cameron,  and  soon  afterward  Stanton, 
War,  Welles  the  Navy,  Caleb  B.  Smith  the  Interior,  Edward  Bates  was 
Attorney-General,  and  Montgomery  Blair  Postmaster-General.  Imme- 
diately on  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  the  President,  April  15,  1861,  called 
for  75,000  volunteers  to  put  down  the  Rebellion.  He  soon  issued  a  call 
for  additional  troops,  instituted  a  blockade,  and  summoned  Congress  to 
meet  in  extra  session  July  4.  As  the  "War  President  "  Lincoln  is  iden- 
tified with  a  great  part  of  the  history  of  the  struggle.  Foreign  compli- 
cations, military  and  naval  movements,  domestic  politics,  as  well  as 
routine  administrative  duties,  all  claimed  his  attention  ;  to  the  people 
and  the  armies  he  was  endeared  as  "  Father  Abraham  "  ;  innumerable 
anecdotes  are  related  bearing  on  his  humor,  strong  common  sense  and 
sympathy.  On  September  22,  1862,  profiting  by  the  partial  success  of 
Antietam,  he  issued  a  preliminary  proclamation  fixing  the  coming 
January  1  as  the  date  for  freeing  slaves  in  insurgent  States.  The  Eman- 
cipation Proclamation  to  that  effect  accordingly  appeared  at  the  open- 


398  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ing  of  1863.  On  the  nineteenth  of  November,  1863,  he  pronounced  on 
the  battle-field  of  Gettysburg  his  short  but  famous  eulogy.  He  was  re- 
nominated by  the  Republicans  June  8,  1864,  and  elected  over  McClellan, 
receiving  212  electoral  votes.  "Malice  toward  none,  charity  for  all  " 
was  the  burden  of  his  second  inaugural.  He  had  visited  Richmond 
after  its  fall,  and  was  pondering  the  questions  of  reconstruction,  when 
on  the  night  of  April  14  he  was  shot  by  Wilkes  Booth  in  Ford's  Theater 
at  the  capital,  and  died  the  next  morning.  Among  the  many  lives  may 
be  mentioned  those  by  Raymond,  Morse,  Herndon  and  the  extended 
one  by  Nicolay  and  Hay. 

Ivincolti,  Benjamin  (1733-1810),  was  major-general  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts militia  from  1774  to  1775  and  commanded  them  at  White  Plains 
in  1776.  In  1777  he  was  second  in  command  under  General  Gates  at 
Bemis  Heights.  He  commanded  the  Southern  army  from  1778  to  1780, 
when  he  was  besieged  by  the  British  at  Charleston  and  forced  to  capit- 
ulate. He  received  the  sword  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  178 1.  He 
was  Secretary  of  War  from  1781  to  1784.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  Convention  that  ratified  the  Constitution. 

Lincoln,  Mary  Todd  (1818-1882),  married  Abraham  Lincoln  in 
1842.  Her  family  sympathized  with  the  Confederate  cause,  and  this, 
together  with  the  death  of  her  husband  and  of  three  sons,  unsettled  her 
reason. 

Lincoln,  Robert  T.,  born  in  1843,  *s  tne  son  °f  Abraham  Lincoln. 
He  served  in  the  Federal  army  from  1864  to  1865.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  Illinois  bar  and  practiced  until  1881.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  in 
the  Cabinets  of  Garfield  and  Arthur  from  1881  to  1885.  He  was  ap- 
pointed U.  S.  Minister  to  Great  Britain  in  1889,  serving  till  1893. 

I^ineoln,  Neb.,  was  laid  out  in  July,  1867,  and  shortly  after  became 
the  capital  of  the  State. 

Lincoln's  Prophecy.  In  the  second  inaugural  address  of  President 
Lincoln  he  used  the  following  prophetic  words  :  ' '  I  see  in  the  near  future 
a  crisis  arising  which  unnerves  me,  and  causes  me  to  tremble  for  the  safety 
of  my  country.  As  a  result  of  the  war,  corporations  have  been  enthroned, 
and  an  era  of  corruption  in  high  places  will  follow,  and  the  money  power 
of  the  country  will  endeavor  to  prolong  its  reign  by  working  upon  the 
prejudices  of  the  people  until  all  the  wealth  is  aggregated  in  a  few 
hands  and  the  republic  is  destroyed.  I  feel  at  this  time  more  anxious 
for  my  country  than  even  in  the  midst  of  war. ' ' 

Litin,  I/ewis  F.  (1795-1843),  served  during  the  War  of  1812  as  a 
surgeon.     He  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Legislature  in  1827.     He 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  399 

represented  Kentucky  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1833  to 
1843. 
"  I/Insurgente."     (See  "Constellation.") 

I4ttle  Crow,  chief  of  the  Sioux  tribe  of  Indians,  led  an  outbreak  of 
the  Indians  on  the  Upper  Minnesota  in  1862,  but  was  defeated  at  Wood 
Lake.    He  was  shot  while  making  a  raid  in  1863. 

I/ittle  Giant,  a  nickname  for  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  be- 
cause of  his  small  stature  and  great  abilities. 

"I4ttle  James,' '  a  small  vessel,  which,  in  company  with  the 
*'  Ann,"  brought  reinforcements  to  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  in  August, 
1623. 

I/ittle  Magician,  a  nickname  given  to  Martin  Van  Buren  on  ac- 
count of  his  dexterity  in  political  manipulations. 

Little  Rock,  Ark.,  founded  in  1820,  became  the  capital  of  the  then 
Territory  the  same  year.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  held  by  the  Con- 
federates until  it  was  captured  by  General  Steele  (September  10,  1863). 

"  Little  Sarah,' '  a  privateer  fitted  out  in  1793,  at  Philadelphia,  by 
Citizen  Genet,  the  newly  arrived  French  Minister.  She  sailed  under 
French  colors  and  was  manned  by  American  seamen,  and  cruised  for 
British  vessels.  This  was  done  against  the  prohibition  of  the  American 
Executive. 

Little  Turtle,  chief  of  the  Miami  Indians,  died  in  1812.  He  com- 
manded at  the  defeat  of  General  Harmar  on  the  Miami  in  1790,  and  of 
General  St.  Clair  at  St.  Mary's  in  1791.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Greenville  treaty  in  1795. 

Little  Van,  a  nickname  for  Martin  Van  Buren,  eighth  President  of 
the  United  States. 

Livermore,  Mary  A.,  born  in  1821,  distinguished  herself  during 
the  Civil  War  by  her  labors  in  the  Sanitary  Commission.  She  is  one 
of  the  foremost  lecturers  upon  woman  suffrage  and  temperance  reform. 

Livingston,  Brockholst  (1757-1823),  served  at  Ticonderoga,  and 
with  Benedict  Arnold  at  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  in  1777.  In  1807 
he  was  appointed  an  Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  and 
served  till  his  death. 

Livingston,  Edward  (1764- 1836),  a  brother  of  Robert  R.  Living- 
ston, graduated  at  Princeton,  and  reached  early  in  life  a  commanding 
position  at  the  New  York  bar.     From  1795  to  1801  he  was  a  Democratic 


400  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Congressman.  While  district  attorney  in  the  following  years  he  be- 
came entangled  in  business,  was  deeply  indebted  to  the  Government, 
and  removed  to  Louisiana  to  retrieve  his  fortunes.  He  was  Congress- 
man from  that  State  in  1822-1829,  U.  S.  Senator  1829-1831,  Secretary  of 
State  1831-1833,  and  Minister  to  France  1833-1835.  His  rank  as  a  law- 
yer was  very  high,  and  his  influence  by  his  codes  and  legal  writings 
was  profound  upon  law  here  and  in  Furope.     (See  Batture  Cases.) 

I/ivingston,  Philip  (1716-1778),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Assembly  from  1758  to  1769.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Stamp- Act  Con- 
gress of  1765,  and  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to 
1778.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  to  prepare  an  address  to  the  people 
of  Great  Britain,  and  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Livingston,  Robert  R.  (1746-1813),  graduated  at  King's  (now 
Columbia)  College  and  became  a  lawyer,  member  of  the  New  York 
Assembly,  and  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  served  on  the 
committee  of  five  which  drafted  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  1781-1783,  and  was  a  prominent 
Federalist  in  the  ratifying  convention  at  Poughkeepsie  in  1788.  Mean- 
while from  1777  to  1801  he  was  Chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  in  this  position  he  administered  the  oath  of  office  to  Washington  in 
1789.  While  U.  S.  Minister  to  France  in  1801-1805  he  helped  to  ne- 
gotiate the  Louisiana  Purchase.  He  is  remembered  also  for  his  connec- 
tion with  many  societies  in  New  York  City,  and  his  association  with 
Fulton  in  the  beginnings  of  steamboat  navigation. 

Livingston,  William  (1723-1790),  was  a  delegate  from  New  Jersey 
to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774  to  1776.  He  was  Governor  of 
New  Jersey  from  1776  to  1790.  In  1787  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  con- 
vention that  framed  the  Constitution  and  signed  that  instrument. 

Livingston  Manor,  in  New  York,  adjoining  that  of  Rensslaerswytk, 
was  granted  by  Governor  Dongan  in  1686  to  Robert  Livingston,  an  im- 
migrant from  Scotland. 

Local  Government.  England,  at  the  time  when  the  first  settle- 
ments were  made  in  the  United  States,  had  well-developed  local  insti- 
tutions, the  country  being  subdivided  into  counties,  the  counties  into 
hundreds,  the  hundreds  into  parishes  or  townships.  In  the  Southern 
colonies,  where  the  plantation  system  prevailed  and  the  settlers  were 
scattered  over  a  large  area,  it  was  natural  that,  of  the  institutions  to 
which  the  settlers  were  accustomed,  they  should  keep  in  use  rather  those 
of  the  county.     In  the  New  England  colonies,  where  population  was 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  401 

more  compact,  it  was  rather  the  township's  set  of  officers  and  institu- 
tions that  were  employed.  Hence  there  grew  up  in  the  United  States 
two  types  of  local  government, — in  New  England  the  township  system, 
in  the  South  the  county  system.  In  the  Middle  colonies  a  form  of  local 
government  was  instituted  which  kept  in  active  existence  both  sets  of 
institutions,  and  this  is  the  type  now  most  common  in  the  West. 
History  by  Howard. 

Local  Option,  the  determination  by  the  people  of  a  town  or  other 
minor  political  community  as  to  whether  or  not  any  licenses  to  sell  in- 
toxicating liquors  shall  be  granted.  This  principle  is  established  in 
many  sections  of  the  various  States. 

I/Ocke,  David  R.  (1833-18^),  was  author  of  a  series  of  patriotic 
satires  known  as  the  "  Nasby  "  letters.  They  exerted  great  influence 
during  the  Civil  War. 

I/Ockwood,  Belva  A.  B.,  born  in  1820,  was  admitted  to  practice 
before  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  Court  of  Claims  in  1879.  She  was 
the  candidate  of  the  Women's  National  Rights  party  in  California  for 
President  of  the  United  States  in  1884. 

I/Ockwood,  James  B.  (1852-1884),  accompanied  the  Lady  Franklin 
Bay  expedition  with  A.  W.  Greely  in  1882,  and,  with  Lieutenant  Brain- 
ard,  attained  the  most  northerly  point  of  land  ever  reached,  at  830  24'  N. 
until  the  Nansen  expedition,  1895. 

Loco-foco,  the  radical  faction,  1835-1837,  of  the  Democratic  party, 
properly  of  New  York,  though  the  name  was  afterward  made  national. 
During  the  Federalist  control  of  the  Government,  the  method  of  grant- 
ing bank  charters  and  controlling  banks  was  charged  by  the  opposing 
faction  with  favoritism  and  corruption.  Upon  their  gaining  control, 
things  did  not,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  improve  ;  and  in  1835  there  was 
formed  in  New  York  the  "  Equal  Rights  party,"  opposed  to  special 
privileges  in  granting  bank  charters  to  corporations.  At  a  meeting  in 
Tammany  Hall,  October  29,  1835.  the  regular  Tammany  Democrats 
tried  to  gain  control.  Finding  themselves  outnumbered,  they  turned 
out  the  lights  and  retired.  The  Equal  Rights  men  produced  candles 
and  "  loco-foco  "  matches,  and  continued  the  meeting.  Hence  the 
name.  This  party  was  beaten  at  the  elections,  but  nevertheless  exer- 
cised considerable  influence. 

I^ocust  Grove,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  during  Meade's  oper- 
ations in  Northern  Virginia.     This  battle  was  desultory  and  lasted  dur- 
ing two  days.  November  27-29,  1863.     Meade's  army  had  crossed  the 
Rapidan,  and  at  Payne's  Farm,  near  Locust  Grove,  French's  division 
Vol.  V.— 26 


402  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

had  encountered  the  Confederate  troops  of  Lee  under  Edward  Johnson 
and  Lee.  That  night  Sedgwick  and  Warren  were  ordered  to  meet  at 
Locust  Grove  for  a  co-operative  attack  on  the  Confederates.  They  in- 
tended to  mass  their  forces  and  assault  the  Confederate  flank,  but  the 
move  failed.  On  the  twenty -eighth  there  was  a  sharp  battle  of  batteries, 
which  accomplished  little.     The  Federals  were  then  ordered  to  retire. 

I/odge,  Henry  Cabot,  born  in  1850,  was  assistant  professor  of 
history  at  Harvard  College,  and  in  1880  and  1881  a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature.  He  was  elected  as  a  Republican  to  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  from  Massachusetts  in  1886  and  served  till  1893, 
when  he  entered  the  Senate.  He  has  published  a  "  Short  History  of 
the  English  Colonies  in  America,"  "  Studies  in  History  "  and  lives  of 
George  Cabot,  Alexander  Hamilton  and  Daniel  Webster. 

l(Og  Cabin  and  Hard  Cider.  In  the  campaign  of  1840  the  Whig 
Candidate,  Harrison,  was  a  military  man  of  plain  manners.  One  of  the 
Democratic  papers,  scoffing  at  the  Whigs  for  taking  a  candidate  not  of 
the  first  caliber,  advised  that  Harrison  be  given  a  log  cabin  and  a  barrel 
of  hard  cider,  and  he  would  stay  contentedly  in  Ohio.  This  was  taken 
up  by  the  Whigs,  and  really  helped  to  make  their  candidate  popular 
with  the  masses.  Log  cabins  were  erected  in  great  numbers  in  the 
cities,  and  were  carried  in  processions,  accompanied  with  barrels  of  cider. 

Logan,  Benjamin  (1752-1802),  a  Kentucky  pioneer,  renowned  for 
his  great  courage  and  endurance.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Fort 
Logan,  Chillicothe  and  Bryan's  Station  during  Indian  troubles. 

I,ogan,  John  (1725  ?-i78o) ,  chief  of  the  Mingo  tribe  of  Indians,  lived 
peacefully  among  the  whites  until  1774.  In  1774  his  family  were  mas- 
sacred by  Ohio  settlers,  and  Logan  instigated  a  war.  The  terrible 
barbarities  were  terminated  by  the  defeat  of  the  Indians  at  the  Great 
Kanawha.  He  sent  a  famous  pathetic  message  to  Lord  Dunmore, 
Governor  of  Virginia,  reviewing  his  wrongs. 

Log- an,  John  A.,  Jr.  son  of  General  Logan,  went  to  the  Philip- 
pines with  a  major's  commission  and  participated  in  several  engage- 
ments against  the  Filipinos.  He  was  killed  November  14,  1899,  in  a 
sharp  fight  with  the  natives  near  San  Jacinto,  and  his  body  was  brought 
back,  with  that  of  General  Lawton's,  for  burial  in  America. 

Logan,  Jobn  Alexander  ( 1826-1886),  volunteered  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  became  thereafter  a  lawyer  and  politican  in  Illinois.  He  was 
a  Democratic  Congressman  in  1859-1861,  but  left  Congress  for  the 
army,  fought  at  Bull  Run,  and  was  made  a  colonel  of  Illinois  volun- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY,  403 

teers.  At  Belmont,  Fort  Henry,  Fort  Donelson  and  in  the  Western 
army  generally  he  was  prominent,  was  appointed  major-general,  com- 
manded a  division  in  the  Vicksburg  campaign  and  a  corps  under  Sher- 
man in  1864,  and  on  the  battlefield  of  Atlanta  succeeded  Mcpherson  in 
the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  "  Black  Jack  "  Logan  was,  in  fact,  one  of 
the  most  noted  non-West-Pointers  of  the  war.  He  was  Republican 
Congressman  1867-1871,  and  Senator  1871-1877  and  1879-1886.  He 
received  some  votes  at  the  Convention  of  1884,  and  was  nominated  for 
second  place  on  the  ticket  with  Blaine,  but  not  elected.  He  wrote 
"  The  Great  Conspiracy." 

I/One  Jack,  a  hamlet  of  Jackson  County,  Missouri,  that  was  the 
scene  of  a  bloody  encounter  1863  between  a  detachment  of  the  Con- 
federate General  Price's  command  and  300  Union  soldiers  under  Major 
Emory  Foster.  The  Confederates  were  attacked  at  daylight,  surprised 
and  driven  to  the  cover  of  houses,  but  they  soon  rallied  and  bitterly  con- 
tested at  every  point.  Both  sides  lost  heavily,  and  though  the  Confeder- 
ates, being  inferior  in  number,  withdrew,  the  battle  ended  without 
material  advantage  to  either  side. 

ItOtigy  John  D.,  lawyer  and  statesman,  born  1838  in  Maine.  Speaker 
Massachusetts  Legislature  three  terms.  Lieutenant-Governor  1879, 
and  Governor  1880-1881-1882.  Congressman  1883  to  1889.  Became 
Secretary  of  Navy  March  5,  1897. 

IfOtig  Island,  N.  Y.,  was  settled  about  1636  by  the  Dutch.  The 
English  settled  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  in  1640.  Long  Island 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  York  in  1664,  and  again  came 
under  Dutch  control  in  1673.  In  1674  the  island  was  again  acquired  by 
the  British.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  Washington  made 
efforts  to  defend  it  against  the  English.  It  was  taken  by  Howe  in  1776, 
and  was  held  by  Great  Britain  until  the  close  of  the  war. 

Long-  Island,  Battle  of,  August  27,  1776.  The  British  plan  of  cam- 
paign was  now  to  crush  Washington  in  New  York,  seize  the  Hudson 
and  thus  divide  the  colonial  forces.  As  Washington  was  inferior  in 
numbers  and  efficiency  he  occupied  Brooklyn  Heights,  with  9,000  men. 
Howe's  only  course  was  to  dislodge  him.  He  landed  his  men  at  Graves- 
end,  L.  I.,  and  after  four  days'  reconnoitering  advanced  in  three 
divisions,  20,000  strong.  Two  divisions  met  the  American  outposts, 
5,000  in  number,  under  Stirling  and  Sullivan.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
third  division  in  their  rear  they  utterly  routed  the  Americans  and  cap- 
tured Stirling  and  Sullivan  and  1,000  of  their  men.  The  British  now 
appeared  before  the  American  position,  but  refrained  from  an  assault, 


4o4  ET CYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

preferring  a  siege.  Clearly  perceiving  the  danger  of  such  a  course 
Washington  conveyed  his  army  over  to  New  York  under  cover  of  night, 
thus  brilliantly  snatching  from  the  enemy  the  fruits  of  his  victory  ; 
for,  although  New  York  had  been  taken,  the  colonial  army  was  still  un- 
subdued. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.  (1807-1882),  became  a  popular  poet  by  the 
production  of  "The  Psalm  of  Life  "  in  1838.  This  was  followed  by 
"Hyperion,"  "Hiawatha,"  "  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,"  "The  Court- 
ship of  Miles  Standish,"  etc.,  and  a  translation  of  Dante.  The  his- 
torical Craigie  House  was  his  home.  He  was  a  poet  of  genial  tempera- 
ment, beloved  by  all. 

Longstreet,#  James,  born  in  1821,  a  Confederate  general,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1842.  He  fought  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  had 
reached  the  rank  of  paymaster  when  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Con- 
federacy. He  distinguished  himself  at  Bull  Run,  Williamsburg,  the 
Seven  Days'  battles,  led  a  corps  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
was  renowned  as  a  hard  fighter.  He  commanded  the  Confederate  left 
at  Fredericksburg,  the  right  at  Gettysburg,  and  the  left  at  Chicka- 
mauga.  Soon  after  he  was  sent  against  Knoxville,  but  failed  to  take  it. 
Returning  to  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  he  fought  at  the  Wilder- 
ness and  almost  constantly  down  to  Appomattox.  After  the  war  he 
held  various  offices  in  the  customs  and  revenue  service,  was  post- 
master and  marshal,  and  under  President  Hayes  was  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Turkey. 

I/ongwoods,  Canada.  Here  Captain  Holmes,  while  on  the  way  to 
attack  Fort  Talbot,  was  attacked  by  the  British  March  3,  1814.  The 
British  lost  more  men,  but  the  Americans  were  forced  to  return  empty- 
handed. 

TfOpeZy  Narcisso,  a  military  adventurer  and  refugee  from  Havana, 
who  in  1849,  1850  and  1851  planned,  with  the  aid  of  Governor  Quit- 
man, of  Mississippi,  and  other  Southerners,  the  capture  and  annexation 
of  Cuba.  The  first  expedition  was  frustrated  by  President  Tyler.  The 
second,  300  strong,  landed  at  Cardenas  and  captured  the  town,  but  was 
quickly  expelled.  Lopez  was  arrested  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  but  released 
for  want  of  evidence.  The  third  expedition  landed  at  Las  Pazas  in 
1851.  The  inhabitants  fled  instead  of  giving  their  aid.  The  invaders 
were  set  upon  by  the  Government  troops  and  quickly  dispersed.  Lopez 
fled  to  the  mountains,  but  was  captured  and  executed  at  Havana,  Sep- 
tember 1,  1 85 1. 

I/09  Angeles,  Cal.,  was  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1781.     Gold 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  405 

discovered  here  in  1842  was  the  first  authentic  finding  of  the  precious 
metal  in  California.  The  city  was  occupied  by  Stockton  in  1846,  but 
was  retaken  by  the  Calif ornians.     It  was  again  captured  in  1847. 

IfOSantiville,  Ohio,  the  name  originally  given  to  the  settlement 
which  is  now  the  city  of  Cincinnati,  by  its  founders,  Patterson,  Denman 
and  Filson,  of  New  Jersey,  who  had  purchased  land  from  the  Scioto 
Company  in  1788.  The  name  is  compounded  of  "  os,"  Latin  for  mouth  ; 
"anti,"  Greek  for  opposite  ;  "  ville,"  French  for  city  ;  and  "  L,"  the 
initial  of  the  Licking  River.     The  name  was  changed  in  1790. 

tossing,  Benson  J.  (1813-1891),  of  New  York,  author  and  wood- 
engraver,  published  "  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution,"  and 
others  of  the  Civil  War  and  War  of  18 12,  a  "  National  History  of  the 
United  States,"  the  "Statesman's  Manual,"  lives  of  Zachary  Taylor, 
Winfield  Scott,  Washington,  etc.,  a  history  of  New  York,  and  "  Biog- 
raphies of  Eminent  Americans." 

lyOtteries.  The  history  of  American  lotteries  begins  with  that  which 
the  charter  of  161 2  authorized  the  Virginia  Company  to  hold  for  the 
benefit  of  its  colonizing  schemes.  In  the  eighteenth  century  they  were 
extraordinarily  popular  in  America.  Legislatures  authorized  lotteries 
for  every  species  of  public  improvement,  for  the  building  of  churches 
and  colleges,  for  the  repair  of  losses  to  individuals  by  fire  and  other- 
wise ;  e.  g.,  Faneuil  Hall,  after  the  fire  of  1761,  was  rebuilt  by  lottery. 
The  Continental  Congress  tried  to  raise  money  by  lottery  in  1777.  The 
sums  annually  employed  by  Americans  in  lottery  speculations  probably 
amounted  to  hundreds  of  thousands.  The  last  lottery  supported  by 
governmental  encouragement  was  the  Louisiana  State  Lottery.  An  Act 
of  Congress  passed  in  1890  attempted  to  crush  it  by  forbidding  it  the 
use  of  the  U.  S.  mails,  which  act  compelled  its  removal  to  Honduras. 

Loudon,  Forts.  There  were  two  fortifications  of  this  name  during 
the  colonial  period.  Both  were  erected  for  the  purpose  of  defense 
against  the  Indians.  One  was  erected  in  Loudon  County,  Tenn.,  on 
the  Tennessee  River,  about  1750,  and  was  the  scene  of  an  Indian  mas- 
sacre a  few  years  later.  The  other  was  built  in  1752  near  Winchester, 
Va.,  for  the  protection  of  the  town.  It  was  a  square  with  four  bastions, 
mounting  twenty-four  guns  and  large  enough  to  contain  450  men. 

I^ouis  XVI.  ( I754~I793)>  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France  in  1774. 
He  gave  the  American  colonies  very  considerable  aid  during  the 
Revolution,  and  burdened  France  with  a  debt  in  their  behalf.  His  war 
with  Great  Britain  lasted  frOm  1778  to  1782.  He  was  executed  in  1793 
during  the  French  Revolution. 


406  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

IfOVLisboVLtgf  Cape  Breton,  Canada,  a  fort  erected  by  the  French  in 
1720.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  King  George's  War  in  1744,  privateers 
were  sent  out  from  Louisbourg  to  harass  the  New  England  coast. 
Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts,  succeeded  in  raising,  in  1745,  a 
strong  force  of  men  and  ships,  to  which  all  the  New  England  States, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  contributed,  either  in  money  or  supplies. 
An  army  of  3,250  men  was  dispatched  against  the  fort  under  the  com- 
mand of  William  Pepperell,  of  Maine.  This  force  began  the  siege 
April  30.  Five  unsuccessful  attacks  were  made.  Finally,  the  French 
garrison  becoming  mutinous,  the  commander  of  Louisbourg  surrendered, 
June  17.  The  fort  was  restored  to  the  French  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1748.  It  was  again  captured  by  Shirley  in  1758,  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  On  June  2,  1758,  the  British  appeared  before 
this  fortress  with  10,000  men  under  Amherst,  and  forty-one  sail  under 
Boscawen.  The  fort  was  defended  by  3,080  regulars,  five  ships  and 
seven  frigates.  On  June  8,  in  spite  of  surf  and  a  spirited  resistance, 
the  British  gained  a  foothold  on  the  island.  The  outposts  were  soon 
captured  and  lines  drawn  around  the  citadel.  The  French  ships  were 
burned  or  captured.  The  garrison  attempted  a  sortie,  but  was  repulsed. 
Half  the  men  were  in  hospitals.  On  July  27  the  fort  capitulated,  and 
the  strongest  point  in  America,  and  great  stores,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English. 

Louisiana,  the  Creole  State,  was  acquired  by  purchase  from  France 
in  1803.  It  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniard  De  Soto  in  1541,  who  was 
buried  in  the  Mississippi.  In  1682  La  Salle  descended  the  river  and 
took  formal  possession  of  the  region  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV.,  in 
whose  honor  it  was  named.  In  1706  New  Orleans  was  founded  by 
Bienville.  John  Law  secured  control  of  the  colony  as  a  part  of  his 
Mississippi  scheme  in  1717.  In  1762  France  transferred  her  title  to 
Spain,  who  restored  the  country  again  to  France  in  1800.  Napoleon, 
following  the  plan  of  La  Salle,  proposed  to  found  a  new  France  in 
America,  but  was  finally  induced  to  sell  the  entire  territory  to  the  United 
States  for  $15,000,000  (1803).  The  following  year  the  Territory  of 
Orleans  was  formed  from  the  portion  of  this  vast  purchase  south  of  330 
north  latitude.  The  northern  portion  was  organized  as  the  Louisiana 
Territory,  the  name  of  which  was  afterward  changed  to  Missouri.  In 
April,  1812,  the  Territory  of  Orleans  became  the  State  of  Louisiana. 
The  final  battle  of  the  War  of  181 2  was  fought  at  New  Orleans  after 
peace  had  been  made  at  Ghent,  but  before  the  news  had  reached 
America.  General  Jackson  repulsed  with  great  slaughter  the  attack  of 
the  British  under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham  upon  New  Orleans.  From 
1812  until  1830  the  State  was  Democratic.     After  1830  until  1850  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  407 

Whigs  were  usually  in  the  majority.  The  State  was  carried  for  Polk  in 
1844  by  fraud.  The  sugar  planters  wished  for  protection  against  foreign 
sugar.     An  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  in  convention  January  26, 

1861.  New  Orleans  was  captured  by  United  States  forces  April  25, 

1862.  The  State  was  restored  to  its  place  in  the  Union,  June  25,  1868. 
The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  that  year.  In  July,  187 1,  the 
Republican  party  became  divided  into  two  factions,  led  by  Warmoth 
and  Kellogg.  In  January,  1872,  there  were  two  rival  Legislatures; 
open  conflict  had  been  prevented  by  troops.  Two  candidates,  McEnery 
and  Kellogg,  were  nominated  for  Governor,  and  on  January  14,  1873, 
both  were  inaugurated  as  Governor.  Two  rival  U.  S.  Senators  were 
elected.  The  Kellogg  government  was  supported  by  the  President  at 
Washington.  In  1876  the  vote  of  the  State  was  claimed  by  both  parties, 
but  was  finally  given  to  the  Republicans  by  the  Electoral  Commission. 
Since  1876  the  State  has  been  Democratic  in  all  elections.  The  popula- 
tion in  181 2  was  76,556  ;  in  1890,  1,118,587. 

I/Oliisiana,  District  of.  Included  in  the  territory  purchased  of 
Spain  by  Jefferson,  1803.  In  I8o4»  when  that  southern  part  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  which  is  now  called  the  State  of  Louisiana  was 
orgarized  as  the  Territory  of  Orleans,  all  that  was  north  of  this  was 
organized  as  the  *'  District  of  Louisiana,"  under  the  Governor  of  In- 
diana Territory.  In  1805  it  was  given  a  separate  government  as  the 
Territory  of  Louisiana.  In  1812  its  name  was  changed  to  Missouri 
Territory. 

Louisiana  vs.  Jumel,  an  important  case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court,  decided  in  1882.  The  plaintiffs,  holding  bonds  issued  under  the 
act  of  the  Louisiana  Legislature  of  1874,  known  as  Act  No.  3,  demanded 
payment  of  these  bonds  in  1880.  Payment  was  refused  in  obedience  to 
Article  3  of  the  Louisiana  State  Debt  Act  of  1880,  carrying  out  provisions 
contained  in  the  new  Constitution  of  that  State.  This  article  recited 
that  coupons  of  consolidated  bonds  falling  due  in  January,  1880,  were 
remitted.  Suit  was  brought  against  officers  of  the  State.  The  Circuit 
Court  of  Louisiana  decided  for  the  defendant,  and  its  decision  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  on  the  ground  that 
relief  could  not  be  awarded  against  officers  obeying  the  supreme  power 
of  the  State  ;  that  the  money  is  the  State's  property,  not  held  in  trust 
by  the  officers,  except  in  the  capacity  of  her  servants. 

X/Otlisville,  Ky.,  founded  in  1778  by  a  company  of  settlers  under 
Colonel  George  Rogers  Clark.  It  became  a  city  in  1828.  The  intro- 
duction of  steam  navigation  on  the  Ohio  in  1812  gave  it  importance  as  a 
center  of  river  trade. 


408  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Iiouxenzo  Marquee  Railway  Seizure.  In  1883  Colonel  Edward 
McMurdo,  an  American  living  in  London,  obtained  a  concession  from 
the  King  of  Portugal  for  the  construction  of  a  railway  from  Lourenzo 
Marquez  to  the  Transvaal  frontier.  Two  months  after  the  death  of 
Colonel  McMurdo  in  1889  the  railroad,  with  all  connecting  property,  was 
seized  by  the  Portuguese  Government,  on  the  ground  that  the  road  had 
not  been  built  to  the  Transvaal  frontier,  as  the  conditions  demanded. 
This  was  generally  regarded  as  a  pretext  for  seizure  of  a  great  property, 
for  the  boundary  was  not  fixed  until  two  years  afterward.  Many  Eng- 
lishmen were  interested  with  Colonel  McMurdo,  and  joint  demands  for 
reparation  were  made  by  the  British  and  American  Governments.  The 
Portuguese  Government  abandoned  its  charge  of  technical  breach  of 
contract  and  confessed  unwarranted  seizure  of  the  road.  The  case  was 
submitted  to  arbitration  in  1890,  when  the  President  of  the  Swiss  Re- 
public appointed  as  jurists  of  a  tribunal  Messrs.  Blaesi,  Hensler  and 
Goldau.  These  jurists  were  simply  to  fix  the  amount  of  indemnity. 
Delagoa  Bay  is  sometimes  called  the  front  door  of  the  Transvaal,  and 
the  Delagoa  Railroad  is  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  sixty  miles  of 
trackage  in  the  world.  The  Arbitration  Commissioners  did  not  render 
a  decision  in  this  very  important  case  until  March  29,  1900,  when  they 
found  in  favor  of  the  claimants  and  condemned  the  Portuguese  Govern- 
ment  to  pay  to  the  heirs  of  McMurdo  and  others  having  rights  the  sum 
of  |4,747,34o. 

I,ovejoy,  Elijah.  P.  (1802-1837),  established  the  St.  Louis  Observet 
in  1833,  in  which  he  ardently  attacked  slavery.  He  was  compelled  by 
violent  pro-slavery  sentiment  to  remove  his  paper  to  Alton,  111.,  in  1836, 
where  his  establishment  was  sacked  three  times  by  a  mob.  At  the 
fourth  attack  one  of  the  mob  was  killed,  whereupon  he  was  shot  by  his 
assailants. 

I/Ovelace,  Francis  (i6i8?-i675?),  became  Governor  of  New  York 
in  1668.  He  established  an  arbitrary  rule,  and  so  oppressed  the  people 
that  New  York  surrendered  to  a  Dutch  fleet  in  1673  without  opposition. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1673. 

I/Ovell,  Mansfield  (1822-1884),  fought  at  Chapultepec  and  Mon- 
terey in  the  Mexican  War.  He  surrendered  New  Orleans  to  Admiral 
Farragut  in  1862,  commanded  at  Coffeeville  and  fought  against  Sherman 
at  Kenesaw. 

I^ow,  Seth,  born  in  1S50,  while  mayor  of  Brooklyn  from  1881  to 
1885,  introduced  many  reforms  and  carefully  guarded  public  interests. 
He  became  president  of  Columbia  College  in  1890. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


409 


Lowell,  James  Russell  (1819-1891),  was  boru  at  Cambridge, 
graduated  at  Harvard,  and  devoted  himself  to  belles-lettres,  becoming 
eventually  professor  of  that  department  and  of  modern  languages  at 
his  university.  Aside  from  his  work  as  editor  of  the  Atlantic  and  of 
the  North  American  Review,  his  essays,  "  Among  My  Books,"  etc., 
his  poems,  "  Fable  for  Critics,"  "Cathedral,"  "  Commemoration  Ode," 
etc.,  his  political  activity  is  to  be  noted.  His  "  Biglow  Papers,"  1846- 
1848,  helped  powerfully  the  anti-slavery  cause  ;  a  second  series  appeared 
in  the  period  of  the  war.  Lowell  won  general  esteem  as  U.  S.  Minister 
to  Spain  1877-1880,  and  to  England  1880-1885.  The  volume,  "  Democ- 
racy and  Other  Essays,"  contains  some  of  his  contributions  to  political 
philosophy. 

I/Owell,  Mass.,  was  made  a  town  in  1826  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
ten  years  later.  The  first  cotton  mill  was  started  in  1823,  and  this  in- 
dustry has  since  grown  to  mammoth  proportions. 

i/owndes,  Rawlins  (1722-1800),  was  appointed  a  Judge  in  South 
Carolina  by  the  crown,  and  affirmed  the  validity  of  unstamped  public 
papers.  He  was  president  of  the  province  from  1778  to  1780.  He  op- 
posed the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  as  fatal  to  liberty. 

I^owndes,  William  J.  (1782-1822),  was  a  member  of  the  South 
Carolina  Legislature  from  1806  to  1810.  He  represented  South  Carolina 
in  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1810  to  1822.  He  served  on 
the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  from  1818  to  1822.  He  earnestly 
supported  the  War  of  181 2.  He  was  a  brilliant  debater,  and  called  by 
Henry  Clay  "  the  wisest  man  he  had  ever  known  in  Congress." 

I/Oyalists.  From  1688  on,  there  was  in  every  colony  a  party  favor- 
able to  the  crown.  When  the  Revolutionary  movements  began,  this 
party  became  more  active.  In  no  colony  was  there  an  overwhelming 
majority  in  favor  of  revolution.  In  some  the  majority  was  unfavorable. 
The  loyalists  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States  comprised  a  large 
part  of  the  most  respectable  and  eminent  men.  It  is  now  recognized 
that  a  large  number  of  them  were  patriotic  in  their  resistance  to  the 
efforts  to  overturn  the  existing  government.  As  the  Revolution  pro- 
gressed they  were  treated  with  increasing  harshness.  Tories  were  os- 
tracized, and  in  some  oases  tarred  and  feathered.  Acts  banishing  them 
and  confiscating  their  property  were  passed  by  most  of  the  colonial  con- 
ventions and  legislatures.  During  the  British  occupation  of  New  York, 
Philadelphia  and  the  Southern  States,  loyalist  regiments  and  more  irreg- 
ular organizations  were  formed  and  took  part  in  the  war,  often  with 
great  bitterness.     Exasperation  against  them  was  so  great  that  at  the 


410  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

end  of  the  war  most  of  them  felt  obliged  to  go  into  exile  when  the  Brit- 
ish troops  withdrew.  Thousands  from  the  North  went  to  New  Bruns- 
wick, Nova  Scotia  and  Canada.  From  the  South  many  went  to  the 
Bahamas  and  West  Indies.  In  the  Treaty  of  1783  the  British  endeav- 
ored to  have  articles  inserted  which  should  provide  compensation  for 
the  dispossessed  loyalists,  hut  no  more  was  secured  than  a  promise  to 
recommend  the  matter  to  the  States.  The  States  refused  to  do  anything 
in  the  matter,  though  subsequently  some  ameliorations  of  their  hard- 
ships were  secured. 

I/Uce,  Stephen  B.,  rear-admiral,  born  in  1827,  was  engaged  in  the 
battle  of  Port  Royal,  on  the  "  Wabash,"  in  1862.  He  commanded  the 
monitor  "  Nantucket "  in  1863,  and  the  "  Pontiac"  from  1864  to  1865. 
He  was  rear-admiral  U.  S.  N.  from  1885  to  1890. 

I/lldlow,  William,  major-general  U.  S.  A.,  born  Riverside,  Long 
Island,  November  27,  1843.  Graduated  at  West  Point,  1864,  and  commis- 
sioned 1st  lieutenant  corps  of  engineers.  Chief  engineer  of  Sherman's 
army  in  Savannah  and  the  Carolinas  campaign,  1864-5.  He  filled  many 
civil  positions,  as  engineer  of  public  works,  attache*  U.  S.  Embassy, 
London,  president  of  the  U.  S.  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission,  1895,  and 
author  of  several  important  public  reports.  In  1899  he  was  appointed 
Military  Governor  of  Havana,  and  inaugurated  a  system  of  free  schools 
in  that  city. 

I/Undy's  I^ane,  Canada,  a  battle  in  the  War  of  1812.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  British  at  Chippewa,  General  Drummond  advanced  to  meet 
the  victorious  American  army  led  by  General  Jacob  Brown.  The  latter 
sent  forward  General  Scott  to  menace  the  forts  on  the  Niagara  River. 
Near  the  Falls,  July  24,  1814,  he  fell  in  with  General  Riall  with  1,800 
men,  who  were  posted  on  a  hill  near  Lundy's  Lane.  Scott  sent  forward 
Major  Jesup,  who  by  a  flank  movement  gained  the  British  rear  and  kept 
back  reinforcements.  Meantime  Scott  was  hotly  engaged  against  a 
much  larger  force.  The  American  main  army  soon  arrrived,  and  Colo- 
nel Miller  stormed  a  battery  which  was  the  key  to  the  British  position. 
The  British,  with  the  reinforcements  that  now  had  arrived,  attempted 
in  vain  to  recapture  this  position.  At  midnight,  after  six  hours  of  fight- 
ing, the  battle  ceased.  The  British  next  day  took  possession  of  the 
battle-field  and  four  of  the  cannon  captured.  Both  parties  claimed  the 
victory.  The  Americans  lost  about  850  men,  the  British  nearly  900  in 
all. 

Xuther  vs.  Borden,  a  celebrated  case  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court. 
In  1842  Luther,  of  Massachusetts,  brought  action  of  trespass  in  the  Cir- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  411 

cuit  Court  of  Rhode  Island  against  Borden  for  entering  his  house  by 
force.  In  184 1  a  portion  of  the  people  of  Rhode  Island  had  framed  a 
new  Constitution  and  elected  Thomas  W.  Dorr  Governor  in  opposition 
to  the  charter  government.  That  government,  King  being  the  execu- 
tive, declared  the  State  under  martial  law,  and  Luther's  house  was 
searched,  he  being  implicated  in  the  armed  conspiracy  against  the  con- 
stitutional government.  Luther  pleaded  the  constitutionality  of  the 
new  government,  but  the  Circuit  Court  found  judgment  against  him, 
and  this  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  confirmed,  1842.  But 
it  was  decided  that  the  question  of  the  constitutionality  of  a  State  gov- 
ernment lay  rather  with  Congress  than  the  judicial  courts.  Also  it  was 
decided  that  under  martial  law  suspected  persons  might  be  legally 
arrested  by  State  authority. 

I,utherans  In  America.  Dr.  H.  M.  Muhlenberg  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  this  church  in  America.  Lutherans  had  settled 
in  the  country  as  early  as  1621,  and  sent  out  probably  the  first  mission- 
aries to  the  Indians,  but  they  remained  unorganized  till  1742,  when  Dr. 
Muhlenberg  was  induced  to  leave  Halle,  in  order  to  organize  the 
churches  scattered  throughout  the  colonies.  The  first  synod  was  held 
in  1748,  and  others  were  held  annually  thereafter.  The  church  grew 
rapidly  under  the  care  of  its  organizer.  Schools  were  established, 
churches  built,  ministers  ordained,  and  its  numbers  steadily  increased 
till  his  death  in  1787.  The  Civil  War  broke  the  church  into  Northern 
and  Southern  Synods,  and  doctrinal  questions  divided  the  former  into 
two  sects,  but  there  is  now  a  movement  on  foot  to  unite  all  bodies  into 
one  General  Conference.     Membership  in  1890,  1,231,000. 

lyddite  (from  Lydd,  England,  its  birthplace),  called  also  melinite, 
peroxilene,  and  other  names,  is  the  most  powerful  of  explosives  used  in 
war.  It  is  made  by  boiling  carbolic  acid  with  an  equal  quantity  of  oil 
of  vitriol,  to  which  mixture  some  aquafortis  is  added.  When  cool  it 
solidifies  in  yellow  crystals  which,  after  a  course  of  washing,  becomes 
pure  picric  acid.  When  this  composition  unites  with  oxide  it  forms 
lead  picrate  and  a  fearful  explosion  instantly  takes  place.  In  using  the 
mixture  the  liquid  picric  acid  is  poured  into  empty  cases,  and,  solidi- 
fying, it  is  transported  without  danger.  The  solidified  acid,  in  proper 
charge,  is  placed  in  the  gun  and  a  small  detonating  charge  of  lead  oxide 
is  inserted  in  the  shell,  when  it  is  to  be  fired. 

layman,  Phineas  (1716-1774).  of  Connecticut,  in  1755  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Connecticut  forces  at  Crown  Point,  and  erected 
Fort  Edward.     He  succeeded  Sir  William  Johnson  in  command  at  Lake 


4i2  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

George  in  1755.  He  commanded  the  Connecticut  troops  at  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point  in  1759,  and  at  Oswego  and  Montreal.  He  com- 
manded in  the  Havana  expedition  in  1762. 

I,ynch,  William  F.  (1801-1865),  planned  and  carried  out  the 
exploration  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  in  1848.  He  entered  the 
Confederate  navy,  commanding  at  Roanoke  Island,  at  Albemarle  Sound 
and  at  Smithville. 

I,ynch  I<aw,  the  law  administered  during  the  Revolutionary  period 
by  Charles  Lynch,  a  Virginia  planter,  and  his  associates,  to  Tories  and 
other  British  sympathizers.  The  victims  were  hung  up  by  their  thumbs 
until  they  shouted:  "Liberty  forever!"  but  were  never  killed.  In 
later  years  and  at  the  present  time  the  term  is  applied  to  summary 
executions  without  trial  and  usually  by  mob  violence. 

I^yon,  Nathaniel  (1818-1861),  served  with  distinction  at  Contreras, 
Churubusco  and  the  city  of  Mexico  during  the  Mexican  War.  He 
served  in  Kansas  during  the  political  struggles  and  supported  the 
cause  of  the  Free-Soil  party.  In  1861  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
U.  S.  arsenal  at  St.  Louis,  and  soon  afterward  succeeded  General  Har- 
ney in  command  of  the  department.  He  defeated  the  Confederates  at 
Booneville  and  at  Dug  Spring  under  McCulloch.  He  sustained  a  de- 
feat at  Wilson's  Creek  by  a  superior  force,  and  during  the  battle  was 
killed. 

lyyons,  Richard  B.  P.,  Viscount  (hotd  I^yons)  (1817-1887), 
was  British  Minister  at  Washington  from  1858  to  1865.  During  the 
trying  times  of  the  Civil  War  he  successfully  conducted  intricate  nego- 
tiations and  laudably  discharged  the  duties  of  his  position. 

Icon's  Creek,  Canada.  An  American  force  sent  to  destroy  some 
supplies  was  here  attacked  October  19,  1814,  by  the  British  under 
Colonel  Murray.  The  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  150  men,  the 
Americans  lost  sixty-seven. 


M. 


McClellan,  George  Brinton  (December  3, 1826— October  29, 1885), 
a  noted  American  general,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  educated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  and  at  West  Point,  where  he  was  graduated 
in  1S46.     His  service  in  the  Mexican  War  was  followed  by  duty  as 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  413 

instructor  in  the  Military  Academy.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  as  an 
expert  to  follow  the  course  of  the  Crimean  War,  and  published  as  a 
result  "The  Armies  of  Europe."  For  a  few  years  he  was  engineer  for 
the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  and  a  railroad  president.  Appointed 
major-general,  and  intrusted  with  command  in  West  Virginia  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  he  broke  up  Garnett's  army,  and  was  sum- 
moned to  Washington  after  the  Bull  Run  catastrophe.  In  August, 
1861,  he  became  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  in  No- 
vember he  succeeded  General  Scott  as  commander-in-chief.  McClel- 
lan's  services  in  organizing  the  army  were  invaluable.  Excess  of 
caution  and  friction  between  the  Washington  authorities  and  himself 
led  to  disappointments  in  his  achievements  against  the  enemy.  He 
commanded  through  the  Peninsula  campaign,  executing  his  famous 
"change  of  base,"  was  relieved  of  the  command,  reappointed  Sep- 
tember 7,  1862,  after  Pope's  disasters,  and  commanded  in  the  Antietam 
campaign.  On  November  7  he  was  removed  and  placed  on  waiting 
orders.  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1864,  and  was  the  same  year 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  President,  receiving  twenty-one  electoral 
votes.  He  was  Governor  of  New  Jersey  1878-1881.  "  Little  Mac  "  was 
phenomenally  popular  with  the  soldiers  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in 
spite  of  outside  criticism. 

McClelland,  Robert  (1807-1880),  represented  Michigan  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1843  to  1849.  He  was  Governor  of 
Michigan  from  1852  to  1853.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in 
Pierce's  Cabinet  from  1853  to  1857. 

McClernand,  John  A.,  born  in  1812,  represented  Illinois  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Democrat  from  1843  to  1851  and  from  1859  to  1861. 
He  organized  a  brigade  in  1861,  and  commanded  it  at  Belmont  and 
Fort  Donelson.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Shiloh,  Vicksburg, 
Arkansas  Post  and  on  the  Big  Black  River.     He  retired  in  1864. 

McCook,  Alexander  MeD.,  general,  born  in  1S31,  commanded  a 
regiment  at  Bull  Run,  and  a  division  at  Shiloh  and  in  the  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi  campaigns.  He  commanded  a  corps  at  Perryville,  Stone 
River  and  Chickamauga. 

McCormick,  Cyrus  H.  (1809-1884),  born  in  Virginia,  invented  the 
reaping-machine  in  1831. 

McCosh,  James,  born  in  181 1,  came  to  America  from  Scotland  in 
1868  to  assume  the  presidency  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton), 
and  held  that  position  till  1888.     He  wrote  "  The  Methods  of  the  Divine 


4H  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Government,"  and  "An  Examination  of  Mill's  Philosophy."     Died 
1894. 

McCrary,  George  W.  (1835-1890),  represented  Iowa  in  the  U.S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1869  to  !877.  He  was  Secretary  of  War 
in  Hayes'  Cabinet  from  1877  to  *879.  He  was  a  U.  S.  Circuit  Judge 
from  1879  to  x884. 

McCrea,  Jane  (i753~I777),  was  taken  prisoner  by  Indians  led 
by  Le  Loup,  a  Wyandotte  chief,  in  1777.  On  the  way  to  the  English 
camp  they  were  met  by  other  Indians  led  by  Duluth,  sent  by  David 
Jones,  Miss  McCrea's  lover,  to  escort  her  to  the  English  camp,  where 
they  were  to  be  married.  During  the  ensuing  quarrel  Le  Loup  shot 
Miss  McCrea.     The  versions  of  this  event  are  many. 

McCulloch,  Benjamin  (1811-1862),  commanded  a  company  during 
the  Mexican  War  at  Monterey,  Buena  Vista  and  the  city  of  Mexico. 
He  was  a  U.  S.  Marshal  from  1853  to  1857.  He  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Confederate  service  in  1861  and  fought  with  distinc- 
tion at  Wilson's  Creek  and  Pea  Ridge,  where  he  met  his  death. 

McCulloch,  Hugh,  born  in  1808,  was  cashier  and  manager  of  a 
bank  at  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  from  1835  to  1856,  and  president  of  the  In- 
diana State  Bank  from  1856  to  1863.  While  Comptroller  of  the  Cur- 
rency (a  new  office)  from  1863  to  1865  he  organized  the  bureau  and  in- 
augurated the  national  banking  system.  He  was  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  the  Cabinets  of  Lincoln  and  Johnston  from  1865  to  1869. 
He  successfully  accomplished  the  funding  of  the  national  debt.  He  was 
again  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from  1884  to  1885.     Died  1895. 

MaeDonough,  Thomas  (1783-1825),  commodore,  served  in  the 
Tripoli  expedition  under  Decatur  from  1803  to  1804.  He  gained  a  cele- 
brated victory  over  a  superior  British  squadron  under  Commodore 
Downie  at  Plattsburg  on  Lake  Champlain  in  1814.  The  British  fleet 
consisted  of  sixteen  vessels  with  ninety-five  guns  and  1,000  men,  and 
lost  about  200,  besides  prisoners.  The  American  force  consisted  of 
fourteen  vessels,  carrying  eighty -six  guns  and  850  men,  and  lost  112 
men. 

McDowell,  Irvin  (1818-1885),  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838  and 
served,  like  so  many  other  West-Pointers,  in  the  Mexican  War.  In  186 1 
he  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac.  His  plans  for  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  were  admit- 
tedly excellent,  but  nothing  could  check  the  demoralization  of  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  415 

green  troops.  His  reputation  as  a  general  was  unjustly  involved  in  the 
collapse  of  the  army,  and  he  was  never  again  intrusted  with  high  com- 
mand. He  was  a  corps  commander  in  Virginia  in  1862,  fought  at  the 
battles  of  Cedar  Mountain  and  second  Bull  Run  ;  after  the  war  he  was 
a  commander  of  various  military  departments,  was  promoted  major-gen- 
eral in  1872,  and  retired  in  1882. 

McDuffie,  George  (1788-1851),  represented  South  Carolina  as  a 
Democrat  in  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives  from  1821  to  1834. 
While  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  he  favored  the 
maintenance  of  a  U.  S.  bank.  He  drafted  the  address  of  South  Caro- 
lina to  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  1832.  He  was  Governor  of 
South  Carolina  from  1834  to  1836,  and  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1842  to 
1846. 

Maee.  The  mace  used  in  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1789 
on  (ebony  fasces  surmounted  by  a  silver  eagle  upon  a  silver  globe)  was 
destroyed  when  the  British  burned  the  Capitol  in  1814.  The  present 
one  was  made  in  1842. 

McGillivray,  Alexander  (1740-1793).  chief  of  the  Creek  Indians, 
aided  the  British  during  the  Revolution.  He  afterward  conducted 
atrocious  raids  along  the  Cumberland  River.  He  had  a  strong  mind, 
but  was  treacherous  and  cruel. 

McGlynn,  Edward,  Roman  Catholic  priest,  born  in  1837,  aided  in 
founding  the  Anti-Poverty  Society  in  1887.  He  was  removed  from  the 
pastorate  of  St.  Stephen's  Church,  New  York,  on  account  of  discoun- 
tenancing parochial  schools  and  advocating  in  public  the  land  theories 
of  Henry  George,  but  was  restored  to  favor  in  1892. 

McHenry,  James  (1753-1816),  came  to  Philadelphia  from  Ireland 
about  1 77 1.  He  served  during  the  Revolution  as  surgeon  and  aide. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland  Senate  from  1781  to  1786,  a  delegate 
from  Maryland  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1783  to  1786,  and  a 
member  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  in  1787.  He  was  Secretary 
of  War  from  1796  to  1801  in  the  Cabinets  of  Washington  and  Adams. 

McHenry,  Fort,  Baltimore,  garrisoned  by  1,000  men  under  Major 
Armistead  during  the  War  of  181 2,  guarded  Baltimore  against  an  attack 
by  sea.  September  13,  1814,  Admiral  Cochrane  with  sixteen  heavy 
war-vessels  opened  bombardment  upon  the  fort.  Its  guns  failed  to 
reach  the  fleet  till  some  of  the  British  vessels  approached  nearer.  They 
met  so  warm  a  reception  that  they  withdrew,  badly  damaged.     A  force 


4i6  ENCYCLOPEDIC    DICTIONARY. 

of  1,000  men,  landed  to  surprise  the  fort  in  the  rear,  was  repulsed.  At 
midnight  the  firing  ceased  ;  next  day  the  British  withdrew  and  Balti- 
more was  safe.  The  only  damage  was  on  the  American  side,  four 
killed  and  twenty-four  wounded.  During  the  bombardment  Francis  S. 
Key,  a  prisoner  on  board  the  British  fleet,  wrote  the  "  Star-Spangled 
Banner." 

MacArthur,  Arthur,  Major  General,  born  in  Massachusetts  1843, 
enlisted  1861,  as  private  in  the  Twenty-fourth  Wisconsin  and  fought  with 
great  bravery  at  Franklin,  Perry  ville,  Stone  River  and  Missionary  Ridge; 
at  the  latter  he  planted  his  regiment's  colors  on  the  enemy's  works, 
for  which  gallantry  he  was  voted  a  gold  medal.  He  rose  by  promotions 
to  colonel,  and  after  the  close  of  the  civil  war  he  joined  the  regular 
army  and  became  a  famous  Indian  fighter.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Spanish-American  War  the  President  appointed  him  a  brigadier  gen- 
eral, and  in  1898  sent  him  to  the  Philippines,  where  he  was  soon  after 
made  a  major  general  of  volunteers.  Major  General  Otis  resigned  the 
post  of  Military  Governor  of  the  Philippines  on  May  1,  1900,  to  which 
position  General  MacArthur  was  immediately  appointed. 

MeKean,  Thomas  (1734-1817),  Governor,  was  prominent  in  the 
Stamp-Act  Congress  of  1765  as  a  delegate  from  Delaware,  and  aided  in 
drafting  the  memorial  to  the  lords  and  commons.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  from  Delaware  from  1774  to  1783,  and  its 
president  in  1781.  He  aided  in  drafting  the*  Articles  of  Confederation, 
and  was  prominent  in  securing  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  signers.  He  was  Chief  Justice  of  Pennsyl- 
vania from  1777  to  1799,  and  Governor  from  1799  to  1808. 

McKinley,  Wm.,  Jr.,  Congressman  and  Governor  of  Ohio,  was 
born  at  Niles,  O.,  in  1843,  and  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Civil  War. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  1877  to  1891, 
and  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  had  the  chief 
hand  in  framing  the  Tariff  Act  of  October  1,  1890,  commonly  called  the 
McKinley  Act.  From  January,  1892,  to  January,  1896,  he  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio.  Elected  President  of  the  United  States  November  3, 
1896,  inaugurated  March  4,  1897,  and  renominated  at  Philadelphia, 
June  21,  1900. 

McKinley  Act,  a  bill  submitted  in  Congress  by  Representative 
McKinley,  of  Ohio,  and  which  became  law  October  1,  1890.  It  provided 
for  a  high  rate  of  duty  on  a  large  number  of  articles  imported  from 
foreign  countries,  but  made  sugar  free.  This  act  was  designed  to  re- 
duce the  national  revenue  and  increase  protection. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  417 

Mcl^ane,  I^ouis  (1786-1857),  of  Delaware,  was  Representative  in 
Congress  from  181 7  to  1827,  Senator  from  1827  to  1829,  Minister  to 
England  from  1829  to  1831,  and  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Jackson's 
Cabinet  from  1831  to  1833,  when  he  resigned  rather  than  order  the  re- 
moval of  the  deposits.  He  was  then  Secretary  of  State  for  a  year.  In 
1845-46  he  was  again  Minister  to  England. 

Mcl^aws,  I^afayette,  born  in  1821,  was  graduated  at  West  Point, 
resigned  from  the  U.  S.  army  in  1861,  and  became  a  major-general  in 
the  Confederate  service.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  division  com- 
mander at  Harper's  Ferry,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville 
and  Gettysburg.     Died  1897. 

McLean,  John  (1785-1861),  born  in  New  Jersey,  but  brought  up  in 
Ohio,  was  a  Representative  from  Ohio  from  1813  to  181 7,  and  Post- 
master-General from  1823  to  1829,  in  the  administrations  of  Monroe  and 
John  Quincy  Adams.  From  1830  to  186 1  he  was  an  Associate  Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  In  the  Dred  Scott  case  he 
dissented  from  the  opinion  of  Chief  Justice  Taney. 

McI,eod,  Alexander,  a  Canadian  temporarily  in  New  York  State 
in  1841,  was  arrested  and  indicted  for  participation  in  the  "  Caroline  " 
affair.  The  British  Minister  demanded  his  release,  alleging  that,  the 
case  being  international,  jurisdiction  over  it  belonged  to  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment, not  to  the  State  courts.  Such  was  also  the  view  of  the  U.  S. 
Government.  But  the  courts  of  New  York  held,  on  the  contrary,  that 
the  burning  of  the  "  Caroline  "  was  not  an  act  of  magistracy  on  the 
part  of  the  Canadian  Government,  that  McLeod  was  therefore  individu- 
ally responsible  and  amenable  to  the  New  York  courts.  He  proved  an 
alibi. 

MeMaster,  John  Bach,  born  in  1852,  is  the  author  of  a  "  History 
of  the  People  of  the  United  States  from  the  Revolution  to  the  Civil  War, " 
of  which  three  volumes  have  appeared,  and  a  "  Life  of  Benjamin 
Franklin." 

Macomb,  Alexander  (1782-1841),  entered  the  U.  S.  army  in  1799, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1812  was  adjutant-general  of  the 
army.  Taking  service  in  the  field  he,  in  September,  1814,  won  the  vic- 
tory of  Plattsburg  over  Sir  George  Provost,  and  was  made  major-general. 
From  i835_to  1841  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

Macon,  Fort,  N.  C,  captured  from  the  Confederates  by  General 
Parke,  commanding  35,000  troops  from  Burnside's  army,  April  23,  1862. 
The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  500  Confederates  under  Colonel  White. 
Vol.  V.— 27 


4i8  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

"  Macon  Bill  No.  2,"  a  bill  so  called  from  its  author,  Nathaniel 
Macon,  was  passed  by  Congress  on  May  1,  1810,  as  a  means  of  extricat- 
ing the  United  States  from  the  difficulties  caused  by  the  aggressions  of 
England  and  France.  It  provided  that  commerce  should  be  free,  but 
that  if  either  England  should  withdraw  her  Orders-in-Council  or  France 
her  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees,  intercourse  should  be  prohibited  with  the 
nation  which  retained  them. 

Macon,  Nathaniel,  see  appendix,  page  487. 

Macon  Road,  Ga.,  a  battle  during  Sherman's  investment  of  Atlan- 
ta, July  26,  1864.  McCook,  commanding  4,000  Federals,  was  defeated 
and  captured  by  6,000  Confederates  of  Hood's  army  under  Ransom. 

McPherson,  James  B.  (1828-1864),  a  brilliant  young  general  of  the 
Civil  War,  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1853.  In  1862  and  1863 
he  was  with  Grant  in  the  Tennessee  and  Vicksburg  campaigns,  com- 
manding a  corps  with  distinguished  success.  In  the  spring  of  1864  he 
was  put  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  and  assisted  Sher- 
man in  his  advance  into  Georgia.  He  had  a  most  important  part  in  the 
fighting  against  Johnston  at  Resaca,  New  Hope  Church,  Dallas  and 
Kenesaw  Mountain.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  against  Hood  at 
Atlanta,  July  22,  1864. 

MacVeagh,  Wayne,  lawyer,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1833,  was 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Turkey  from  1870  to  1871,  headed  a  commission  of 
investigation  in  Louisiana  appointed  by  President  Hayes  in  1877,  was 
Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  under  Garfield  in  1881,  and  in 
1893  was  appointed  Minister  to  Italy. 

Madison,  Dorothy  Paine  (1772-1849),  wife  of  President  Madison, 
was  a  beautiful  and  accomplished  Quakeress.  Her  first  husband  was 
John  Todd,  a  Philadelphia  lawyer.  She  married  Mr.  Madison  in  1794, 
and  was  unusually  successful  as  a  President's  wife. 

Madison,  James  (1 751-1836),  fourth  President  of  the  United  States, 
wa3  born  in  King  George  County,  Va.  He  was  well  educated,  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  in  1772,  and  was  early  distinguished  for  sound  judg- 
ment, discretion,  acquirements,  industry  and  patriotism.  In  1774  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  of  Orange  County, 
and  in  1776  became  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Convention.  From  1780 
to  1784  he  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and,  in  spite  of 
his  youth  and  modesty,  had  a  leading  share  in  its  deliberations,  and 
especially  its  committee-work,  for  which  his  sensible  and  methodical 
mind  was  peculiarly  apt.      In  the  Virginia   Assembly  (1784-87)  he  did 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  419 

great  service  in  securing  religious  liberty  and  in  promoting  the  move- 
ment toward  a  better  union  of  the  States.  Probably  no  one  else  con- 
tributed more  to  this  end  in  all  America.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Alexandria- Mount- Vernon  Conference  of  1785,  of  the  Annapolis  Con- 
vention of  1786,  and  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  in  which 
he  had  the  most  influential  part,  through  his  own  talents  for  construc- 
tive statesmanship  and  also  through  his  persuasive  and  conciliatory 
spirit.  In  1788  he  wrote  a  portion  of  the  Federalist,  and  did  more  than 
any  one  else  to  secure  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  Virginia. 
From  1789  to  1797  he  was  a  leading  member  of  Congress,  inclining  more 
and  more  to  the  doctrines  and  party  of  Jefferson.  He  wrote  the  Virgin- 
ia resolutions  of  1798.  From  1801  to  1809  he  was  Secretary  of  State  in 
Jefferson's  Cabinet,  and  from  1809  to  1817  he  was  President  of  the 
United  States,  being  elected  over  C.  C.  Pinclcney  in  1808,  and  over 
DeWitt  Clinton  in  181 2.  The  chief  event  in  his  administration  was  the 
War  of  1812,  which  he  managed  feebly.  His  Cabinet  consisted  of 
Robert  Smith  (1811-17  James  Monroe),  Secretary  of  State  ;  Albert  Gal- 
latin (1814  G.  W.  Campbell,  1814  A.  J.  Dallas,  1816  W.  H.  Crawford), 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  ;  William  Eustis  (18T3  John  Armstrong,  1814 
J.  Monroe,  181 5  W.  H.  Crawford),  Secretary  of  War  ;  Paul  Hamilton 
(1813  William  Jones,  1814  B.  W.  Crowuinshield) ,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  ; 
Caesar  A.  Rodney  (1811  William  Pinckney,  1814  Richard  Rush), 
Attorney-General.  The  Vice-Presidents  were  George  Clinton,  1809- 
1813  ;  Elbridge  Gerry,  1813-1814.  From  1817  to  his  death  Madison 
lived  in  retirement  at  Montpelier,  Va. 

Madison,  Fort  (near  St.  I<ouis).  Attacked  September  5,  1812,  by 
a  party  of  Winnebagoes.  After  three  days'  fighting  the  Indians  with- 
drew.    The  American  loss  was  one  man. 

Madoc,  or  Madogf,  a  Welsh  prince,  son  of  Owain  Gwynedd,  is  said, 
in  accordance  with  a  tradition  first  published  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
to  have  sailed  west  about  1171  and  discovered  America.  The  first  men- 
tion of  this  Madog  is  in  a  Welsh  poem  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
is  not  known  to  have  existed,  and  the  story  of  his  discovery  is  not  now 
believed  by  the  most  competent  authorities. 

Magazines.  The  first  American  literary  periodical  was  the  "Gen- 
eral Magazine  and  Historical  Chronicle,"  issued  by  Franklin  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1 74 1.  In  the  same  year  and  place  appeared  the  "  American 
Magazine,"  but  neither  lived  a  year.  In  1743  an  "American  Magazine 
and  Historical  Chronicle  "  began  to  be  published  in  Boston.  The  first 
which  appeared  in  New  York  was  the  ' '  Independent  Reflector, ' '  weekly, 


42o  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

1752.  Other  important  magazines  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  the 
"Pennsylvania  Magazine"  of  1775,  the  "American  Museum,"  1787- 
1797  ;  the  "  Massachusetts  Magazine,"  1789-1796,  and  the  "  New  York 
Magazine,"  1 790-1797.  Of  much  more  value  were  the  "Portfolio," 
Philadelphia,  1801-1825,  and  the  "Monthly  Anthology,"  Boston,  1803- 
1811.  The  first  important  review  was  the  "  North  American  Re  view, " 
founded  in  1815  at  Boston.  The  chief  predecessor  of  the  modern  liter- 
ary and  miscellaneous  magazines  of  America  was  the  ' '  Knickerbocker, " 
1S32-1S60.  Of  the  leading  magazines  of  the  present  time,  Harper's  was 
founded  in  1850,  Scribner's  (later  the  "  Century  Magazine  ")  in  1870, 
the  "Atlantic  Monthly  "  in  1857. 

Magoffin,  Beriah  (1815-1885),  a  prominent  member  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  was  Governor  of  Kentucky  from  1859  to  1862.  His  sym- 
pathies inclined  toward  the  Confederates,  but  he  maintained  a  policy  of 
neutrality. 

Magruder,  John  B.  (1810-1871),  Confederate  major-general,  com- 
manded the  forces  in  the  Peninsula  in  1862,  the  Department  of  Texas 
during  the  remainder  of  the  war,  after  which  he  served  under  Maxi- 
milian in  Mexico. 

Maguaga,  Mich.,  about  fourteen  miles  from  Detroit,  scene  of  a 
minor  engagement  in  the  War  of  1812,  August  9,  1812.  Colonel  Miller, 
attempting  to  clear  the  road  to  Detroit,  attacked  the  British  and  Indians, 
under  General  Proctor  and  Tecumseh.  Though  successful  he  was 
obliged  to  give  up  his  advance  movement. 

Mahan,  Alfred  Thayer,  born  in  1840.  Rose  to  be  captain  in  the 
U.  S.  navy.  Authority  on  naval  strategy  and  history  and  the  author  of 
many  books. 

Mahone,  William,  born  in  1826,  Confederate  major-general,  and 
noted  for  hard  fighting  in  several  battles,  especially  at  Petersburg,  about 
1878  organized  and  became  the  leader  of  the  party  called  Readjusters, 
advocating  repudiation  of  the  State  debt  of  Virginia.  From  1881  to 
1887  he  was  a  Senator  from  Virginia.     Died  October  8,  1895. 

Maine,  name  probably  meaning  main-land,  as  distinguished  from 
the  islands  off  its  coast.  It  was  first  settled  by  a  party  led  by  George 
Popham  in  1607,  but  this  was  temporary.  By  grants  of  1622,  1629  and 
1639,  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  obtained  the  territory  between  the  Pisca- 
taqua  and  the  Kennebec.  In  1652  and  again  in  1668,  Massachusetts 
obtained  possession  of  this  part  of  Maine.     Eastern  Maine,  held  by  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  421 

Duke  of  York  from  1664,  fell  to  Massachusetts  in  1691.  The  "  District 
of  Maine  "  remained  a  part  of  Massachusetts  till  1820,  when  it  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  separate  State  on  April  15.  Its  Constitution, 
framed  in  that  year,  is  still  in  operation.  In  1842  the  Ashburton  Treaty 
settled  the  long-standing  dispute  regarding  its  northeast  boundary. 
Its  boundary  with  New  Hampshire  had  been  settled  in  1737.  The 
"  Maine  law,"  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  was  passed  in  1S51  and  permanently  in  1858.  Maine  was  almost 
constantly  Democratic  from  1820  to  1854;  almost  constantly  Republican 
from  1856  to  the  present  time  (1894).  In  1880  a  Democratic  Governor 
and  council  "  counted  in  "  a  Democratic-Greenback  Legislature,  and 
for  a  brief  period  there  were  two  bodies  claiming  to  be  Legislatures. 
In  1790  the  population  of  Maine  was  97,000,  in  1820  298,000,  in  1890 
661,000. 

Maine  I/aw,  a  law  prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  as  a 
beverage,  first  adopted  in  Maine  in  1851. 

"  Maine,"  U.  S.  battleship,  was  blown  up  in  the  harbor  of  Havana 
on  the  night  of  February  15,  1898,  by  a  mysterious  explosion  from  with- 
out, and  266  men  were  lost,  including  officers.  Captain  Charles  D. 
Sigsbee  was  in  command. 

Mallory,  Stephen  R.  (1813-1873),  of  Florida  (though  of  New 
England  parentage),  was  a  Senator  from  Florida  from  185 1  to  1861. 
During  most  of  this  time  he  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Naval 
Affairs.  On  the  formation  of  the  Confederate  Government  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Davis  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  which  office  he 
held  during  the  continuance  of  the  Confederacy. 

Malolos,  a  town  of  nearly  4,000  inhabitants  20  miles  north  of  Manila, 
on  the  Deguypau  railway.  On  September  15,  1898,  it  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  Philippine  revolutionary  government,  the  ceremonies  of 
opening  the  Congress  being  witnessed  by  many  Americans,  towards 
whom  Aguinaldo  and  hi3  followers  were  at  the  time  distinctly  friendly. 
After  the  uprising  of  February  9,  1899,  Aguinaldo  garrisoned  the  place 
with  nearly  5,000  troops,  which  was  attacked  by  General  MacArthur's 
brigade  on  the  morning  of  March  31.  After  a  slight  defense  the  Fili- 
pinos set  fire  to  the  Presidentia  and  other  stately  buildings,  and  then 
hastily  fled.  The  American  troops  entered  the  town  about  noon,  but  too 
late  to  save  the  capitol  building  from  destruction,  but  the  flames  were 
prevented  from  spreading  further. 

Malvern  Hill,  a  battle  in  the  Civil  War,  the  last  of  the  "  Seven 


422  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Days'  "  battles,  July  i,  1862,  by  which  McClellan  completed  his  change 
of  base  to  the  James  River.  After  the  battle  of  Frayser's  Farm,  Mc- 
Clellan had  retreated  with  his  85,000  Federal  troops  to  Malvern  Hill,  a 
strong  position  on  an  elevated  plateau  shaped  like  an  amphitheater. 
His  lines  were  securely  posted  behind  fences,  ditches  and  hedges,  their 
batteries  and  infantry  commanding  the  slope  which  the  Confederates 
must  ascend  to  attack  them.  Lee  ordered  an  attack,  which  was  meant 
to  be  made  simultaneously  by  all  parts  of  his  line  at  a  given  signal,  the 
"  Confederate  yell."  But  his  lieutenants  were  so  separated  that  the 
signal  could  not  be  heard,  and  the  attacks  were  therefore  feeble  and 
disorganized.  D.  H.  Hill  and  Magruder  bore  the  brunt  of  the  fight. 
Time  after  time  they  charged  the  impregnable  Federal  position,  but  in 
vain.  They  were  always  driven  back  with  fearful  slaughter.  The  battle 
lasted  until  nightfall.  During  the  night  McClellan  retired  under  cover 
of  a  violent  storm. 

Manassas,  Va.,  the  field  of  two  engagements  during  the  Civil  War. 
July  21,  1861,  Johnston  and  Beauregard,  with  31,000  Confederates,  de- 
feated 28,000  Federals  under  McDowell.  August  21,  1862,  Hooker,  Fed- 
eral, with  40,000  troops,  was  defeated  by  Lee  and  Jackson. 

"  Mandamus  Councilors,' '  a  name  opprobriously  applied  by  the 
revolutionary  party  in  Massachusetts  to  those  members  of  the  council  of 
the  province  who,  in  August,  1774,  accepted  appointment  by  writ  of 
mandamus  at  the  hands  of  Governor  Gage.  By  the  charter  of  1691 
councilors  had  been  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Massachusetts  Charter  Act  of  1774,  to  punish  Massachusetts,  gave  Gov- 
ernor power  to  appoint  them. 

Mandans,  a  small  tribe  of  Indians,  numbering  about  500,  now 
dwelling  on  a  reservation  in  Dakota  near  Bismarck.  They  were  first 
heard  of  about  1772.  They  then  lived  on  the  Missouri,  about  1,500  miles 
up  from  its  mouth.  They  are  of  light  complexion,  hence  many  vain 
attempts  to  trace  their  descent  from  the  supposed  Welsh  colony  of 
Prince  Madoc. 

Mangoaks,  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  North  Carolina,  into  whose  coun- 
try Ralph  Lane,  commander  of  Raleigh's  colony,  in  1586  attempted  an 
expedition,  on  information  of  a  pearl  fishery  among  them. 

Mangum,  Willie  P.  (1792-1861),  of  North  Carolina,  was  a  Repre- 
sentative from  that  State  from  1823  to  1826,  and  Senator  from  1831  to 
1836  and  from  1840  to  1853,  serving  as  a  Whig.  In  1836  he  received  the 
electoral  votes  of  South  Carolina  for  the  Presidency. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  423 

Manhattan,  the  original,  apparently  Indian,  name  of  the  island  on 
which  New  York  is  now  situated.  In  161 3  the  first  settlement  was  made, 
of  the  nature  of  a  trading-post.  In  1626  Peter  Minuit,  director  for  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company,  bought  the  island  of  the  Indians  for  sixty 
guilders  ($24). 

Manila,  Battle  of  (Philippines),  May  1,  1898.  The  U.  S.  Naval 
Squadron,  viz.,  the  "  Olympia,"  "  Baltimore,"  "  Raleigh,"  "  Petrel," 
"  Concord,"  and  "  Boston,"  under  Commodore  Dewey,  destroyed  the 
Spanish  squadron  under  Admiral  Montojo,  viz.,  the  "  Reina  Christina," 
"  Castilla,"  "  Don  Antonia  de  Ulloa,"  "  Isla  de  Luzon,"  "  Isla  de 
Cuba,"  "  General  Lezo,"  "  Marquis  de  Duero,"  "  Cano  Velasco,"  and 
"  Isla  de  Mindanao,"  and  silenced  the  land  batteries.  Spanish  lost  two 
commanders  and  about  650  men  killed  and  wounded.  Americans  had 
six  men  wounded. 

Manila,  City  of,  capital  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  the  center  of 
a  large  eastern  commerce,  was  founded  by  Legaspi  in  1571.  It  is  situated 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  a  circular  bay,  of  Luzon,  120  miles  in  circum- 
ference, the  country  about  being  so  level  that  the  harbor  is  an  unsafe 
one  during  the  monsoons,  and  vessels  are  often  compelled  to  take  ref- 
uge from  storms  in  the  naval  port  of  Cavite".  The  city  contains  a  popu- 
lation of  about  190,000,  of  Chinese,  Japanese,  Singalese,  Spaniards  and 
mixed  native  races.  The  River  Pasig,  that  debouches  at  the  city,  is 
fourteen  miles  long,  fed  by  an  inland  lake  called  Laguna  de  Bayo.  The 
city  has  several  times  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  and  tornadoes, 
the  greatest  being  one  that  occurred  in  October,  1882.  The  city  was 
captured  from  the  Spaniards,  General  Augustin,  August  13,  1898,  by 
American  troops  commanded  by  General  Merritt,  in  conjunction  with 
Dewey's  fleet. 

Manley,  John  (1733-1793),  born  in  England,  but  settled  in  Marble- 
head,  Mass.,  was  commissioned  by  Washington  to  cruise  off  Boston  and 
intercept  Gage's  supplies,  October  24,  1775.  He  opened  the  naval  oper- 
ations of  the  Revolution  by  capturing  the  "  Nancy,"  laden  with  mili- 
tary supplies,  on  November  29.  In  1776  he  was  made  the  second  cap- 
tain in  the  U.  S.  navy,  and  commanded  the  "  Hancock  "  in  1776  and 
1777,  and  privateers  subsequently.     He  was  twice  made  a  prisoner. 

Mann,  Horace  (1796-1859),  of  Massachusetts,  educator,  was  grad- 
uated at  Brown  Universitv  in  1819.  From  1837  to  1848  he  was  secretary 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education.  He  reformed  the  educa- 
tional system  of  the  State,  introducing  normal  schools  and  teachers' 


424  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

conventions,  and  exerted  a  wide  influence  throughout  the  country  in 
regard  to  educational  matters.  From  1848  to  1853  ne  was  an  anti-slavery 
Whig  Congressman,  and  from  1853  to  his  death  was  president  of  An- 
tioch  College. 

Manning,  Daniel  (1831-18S7),  of  New  York,  chairman  of  its  Demo- 
cratic State  Committee  from  1881  to  1884,  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  by  President  Cleveland  in  1885,  and  served  as  such  till 

1887. 

Manors,  in  the  United  States.  Manors  of  the  English  type,  *.  e.t 
landed  estates  granted  on  such  terms  that  the  right  of  property  carried 
with  it  rights  of  jurisdiction,  were  created  in  several  of  the  colonies.  In 
1636  the  Proprietor  of  Maryland  ordained  that  every  grant  of  2,000  acres 
to  any  man  should  be  erected  into  a  manor.  Bohemia  Manor,  My 
Lady's  Manor  and  Doughoregan  Manor  are  celebrated,  as  also  Penn 
Manor  in  Pennsylvania.  Under  the  Duke  of  York  Martha's  Vineyard 
was  the  Manor  of  Tisbury.  In  New  Netherland  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company  erected  manors  for  the  patroons. 

Mansfield,  J.  K.  F.  (1803-1862),  general,  was  commander  of  the 
Department  of  Washington  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  killed  at  Antietam. 

Manteo,  a  friendly  Indian  of  the  Roanoke  region,  was  helpful  to 
Raleigh's  colony  of  1585-86.  He  had  visited  England  with  Amidas  and 
Barlow  just  before. 

Manufactory  Bank,  a  short-lived  scheme  in  Massachusetts  in  1740 
to  establish  a  bank  by  securing  its  issues  by  a  mortgage  on  the  real 
estate  of  each  subscriber  to  the  amount  of  his  subscription.  It  was  sup- 
ported by  traders  and  people  in  the  rural  districts  and  by  the  House  of 
Representatives,  but  was  opposed  by  a  strong  party.  It  issued  ^50,000 
of  notes  and  then  failed. 

Manufactures.  American  manufactures  began  with  the  making  of 
glass  at  the  Jamestown  colony.  At  first  the  chief  manufactures  in  the 
colonies  were  of  ships,  lumber  and  iron.  Domestic  manufactures  con- 
tinued till  long  after  the  Revolution  to  be  an  important  portion,  espe- 
cially in  the  article  of  cloth.  Soon  the  amount  of  American  exports  of 
manufactured  articles  was  so  great  that  English  manufacturers  com- 
plained. In  1699  Parliament  enacted  that  no  woolen  manufactures 
should  be  shipped  from  the  colonies.     The  iron  manufacture  was  re- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  425 

pressed  by  a  series  of  laws  beginning  in  1719.  Export  of  bats  was  for- 
bidden in  1731,  and  several  otber  similar  probibitions  were  enacted. 
The  Revolution  stimulated  manufactures  and  States  tried  to  foster  them 
by  bounties.  Yet  in  1789  they  were  still  in  their  infancy.  The  coun- 
try was  mainly  agricultural,  though  there  were  some  important  manu- 
factures of  heavy  iron  goods,  paper,  glass,  gunpowder,  rum,  leather  and 
textiles,  and  excellent  ships  were  built.  The  slightly  protective  tariff 
of  1789  increased  manufactures,  the  War  of  1812  still  more  so,  insomuch 
that  in  1815  the  amount  of  capital  in  the  cotton  and  woolen  indus- 
tries was  probably  $50,000,000.  After  the  war  a  great  development  of 
American  manufactures  began,  those  created  by  the  war  demanding  in- 
creased protection,  and  receiving  it  in  the  tariffs  of  1824  and  1828. 
Manufacturing  towns  arose,  and  American  life  ceased  to  be  exclusively 
agricultural  and  rural.  This  development,  however,  was  almost  entirely 
in  the  North.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  the  South  was  almost 
without  manufactures,  while  the  industrial  life  of  the  North  was  be- 
coming more  and  more  varied.  Since  the  war  the  manufactures  of  the 
United  States  have  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  the  lead- 
ing manufacturing  country  of  the  world,  and  make  one-fourth  of  its 
entire  total  of  manufacturing.  The  amount  of  manufacturing  done  in 
the  United  States  seems  to  have  about  doubled  from  1880  to  1890.  In  the 
South  the  development  in  the  past  fifteen  years  has  been  marvellous. 
The  history  of  some  of  the  leading  industries  is  treated  in  separate  articles. 

Marbois,  Francois  de  Barbe-,  Marquis  de  (1745-1837),  was  sent 
&om  France  to  the  United  States  as  secretary  of  legation  in  1779,  and 
remained  until  1785.  When  appointed  to  cede  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States  in  1803,  he  secured  30,000,000  francs  more  than  the  French  ad- 
ministration had  demanded.  He  wrote  "  Complot  d' Arnold  et  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  contre  les  Etats-Unis  d'Amdrique,"  and  "  I/Histoire  de 
la  Louisiane  et  de  la  Cession." 

Marbury  vs.  Madison.  William  Marbury  and  others,  having 
been  appointed  justices  of  the  peace  in  the  District  of  Columbia  by 
President  Adams,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  having,  on 
President  Jefferson's  accession,  failed  to  receive  their  respective  com- 
missions of  appointment,  moved  the  Supreme  Court  to  issue  a  man- 
damus to  James  Madison,  Secretary  of  State,  commanding  him  to 
deliver  their  several  commissions.  The  court  decided  that  Marbury 
was  legally  entitled  to  his  commission,  but  that  the  Constitution  did 
not  invest  it  with  the  authority  to  issue  a  mandamus  in  such  a  case. 
The  i-ule  was  discharged  February,  1803.  Thus  the  court  declared 
unconstitutional  a  portion  of  an  Act  of  Congress,  the  Judiciary  Act  of 
1789,  wL>ch  purported  to  grant  such  authority.     This  was  the  first  im- 


426  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

portant  case  in  which  the  Court  set  aside  an  act  of  Congress  because  of 
conflict  with  the  Constitution. 

i 
March  Fourth,  the  day  chosen  for  the  Presidential  inauguration. 
Its  choice  dates  from  the  year  1788,  that  day  being  designated,  after  the 
ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  the  States,  as  inauguration  day,  by 
the  Congress  of  the  old  Confederation.  They  fixed  on  the  first  Wednes- 
day in  January,  1789,  for  the  choice  of  the  electors  ;  the  first  Wednes- 
day in  February  for  the  voting  by  the  electors  ;  the  first  Wednesday  in 
March  (March  4  that  year)  for  the  inauguration.  The  Twelfth  Amend- 
ment makes  this  the  constitutional  day. 

March  to  the  Sea,  General  Sherman's  celebrated  march  from  Atlanta 
to  Savannah  with  a  Union  army  of  over  60,000  men,  November  15  to 
December  21,  1864.  Burning  the  Confederate  shops,  depots  and  store- 
houses, and  leaving  Thomas  with  two  corps  to  look  after  Hood,  Sher- 
man set  out  with  the  Fifteenth,  Seventeenth,  Fourteenth  and  Twentieth 
corps  of  infantry,  5,063  cavalry  under  Kilpatrick,  1,812  artillerymen,  and 
enormous  trains  of  wagons  and  ambulances.  The  line  of  march  extended 
nearly  sixty  miles  through  the  very  heart  of  the  Confederacy,  passing 
through  Rough  and  Ready,  Jonesboro,  Covington,  McDonough,  Macon, 
Milledgeville,  Gibson,  Louisville,  Millen,  Springfield  and  many  smaller 
towns.  The  march  was  300  miles  in  length.  The  soldiers  were  allowed 
to  pillage  freely,  discriminating  between  the  rich  and  poor.  The 
Georgia  Central  Railroad  was  wholly  destroyed,  besides  thousands  of 
dollars'  worth  of  other  property.  Foraging  parties  preceded  the  army, 
and  scouts  were  kept  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  Confederate  attacks. 
Sherman  lost  764  men  on  the  march.  Savannah  was  captured,  after 
some  days  of  siege,  December  21,  Sherman  presenting  the  city  to 
Lincoln  asa"  Christmas  present." 

Marcy,  Randolph  B.  (1812-1887),  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and 
was  brevetted  major-general  for  services  during  the  Civil  War.  From 
1869  to  1881  he  was  inspector-general.  He  published  "  Exploration  of 
the  Red  River  "  in  1852. 

Marcy,  William  learned  (1786-1857),  an  American  Cabinet  officer, 
graduated  at  Brown,  became  a  lawyer,  took  part  in  the  War  of  18 12, 
and  became  a  Democratic  editor  in  Troy.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  in 
the  "  Albany  Regency, "  and  a  master  in  political  management.  In 
1 823-1 829  he  was  Comptroller  of  New  York,  Associate  Justice  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court  1829-1831,  and  in  1831-1833  member  of  the  U.  S. 
Senate,  where  he  made  his  famous  "  To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils  " 


AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


427 


speech.  He  was  Governor  of  New  York  1833-1839,  Secretary  of  War 
1 845-1 849,  and  Secretary  of  State  1853-1857.  In  the  latter  office  he  has 
won  general  regard  for  his  able  treatment  of  difficult  international 
questions. 

Margry,  Pierre,  born  in  1818,  made  extensive  investigations  and 
valuable  discoveries  while  archivist  of  the  marine  and  colonies  in 
Paris,  concerning  La  Salle  and  explorations  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Mariana,  a  tract  of  country,  which  included  a  large  portion  of  the 
present  State  of  New  Hampshire,  granted  to  John  Mason  in  1629,  by 
the  council  for  New  England.  It  extended  from  the  Salem  River  to 
the  Merrimac. 

Maries  des  Cygnes  (Marsh  of  the  Swan) ,  a  small  stream  in  eastern 
Kansas,  which  becomes  the  Gasconade  in  Missouri.  Near  the  border  line 
of  Kansas  and  Missouri,  on  the  bank  of  the  Maries  des  Cygnes,  a  dread- 
ful tragedy  took  place  in  1858,  which  has  been  made  famous  by  one  of 
Whittier's  anti-slavery  poems.  The  event  so  dramatically  described  by 
the  poet  was  the  arrest  of  fourteen  farmers  by  Missouri  desperadoes,  who 
bound  their  victims  to  stakes  and  shot  them  to  death  for  the  crime  of 
opposing  the  introduction  of  slavery  into  Kansas. 

Marine,  Secretary  of,  an  office  created  by  act  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  February  7,  1781,  to  supersede  the  Board  of  Admiralty  in  the 
supervision  of  naval  affairs.  The  duties  corresponded  to  those  of  the 
present  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  with  certain  restrictions,  but  before  the 
end  of  the  year  its  duties  were  given  to  the  Treasury  Department. 

Marine  Hospital  Service.  In  1798  an  act  was  passed  in  accord- 
ance with  which  twenty  cents  per  month  might  be  detained  from  the 
wages  of  all  seamen,  to  be  paid  over  to  the  collector  of  the  ports  where 
ships  might  enter  on  their  return  voyages,  toward  a  fund  for  the  erec- 
tion of  hospitals  for  merchant  seamen.  This  service  has  been  placed 
under  the  charge  of  the  Department  of  the  Treasury. 

Mariner's  Quadrant  was  invented  by  Thomas  Godfrey,  of  German- 
town,  Pa.,  1730. 

Marines.  The  United  States  Marine  Corps  was  first  established  by 
Act  of  Congress  November  10,  1775,  authorizing  the  enlistment  of  two 
battalions  to  be  called  the  "first  and  second  battalions  of  marines." 
The  Marine  Corps  was  re-established  by  Act  of  Congress  July  II,  1798. 
By  this  act  the  marines  are  at  any  time  liable  to  do  duty  in  the  forts 
and  garrisons  of  the  United  States.     While  enlisted  they  are  exempt 


428  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

from  arrest  for  debt  or  contract.  There  is  no  regimental  organization, 
but  the  corps  may  be  formed  into  companies  as  the  President  directs. 
The  marines  are  at  all  times  subject  to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the 
navy.  By  the  Act  of  1874,  the  commander-in-chief  of  marines  is  en- 
titled to  the  rank  and  pay  of  a  colonel. 

Marion,  Francis  (1732-1795),  a  Revolutionary  general,  was  a 
South  Carolinian  planter,  of  Huguenot  descent.  He  fought  in  the 
Cherokee  War  and  sat  in  the  Provincial  Congress.  Enlisting  at  the 
opening  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  present  at  the  British  repulse  off 
Charleston  1776,  and  took  part  in  the  unfortunate  Savannah  expedition 
of  1779.  His  noted  period  is  the  last  three  years  of  the  war.  He  organ- 
ized in  1780a  celebrated  partisan  corps,  "Marion's  brigade,"  famous 
for  the  activity  of  its  movements,  telling  blows  and  simplicity  of  fare. 
Marion,  surnamed  the  "  Swamp-Fox,"  operated  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Pedee  River  and  other  parts  of  the  Carolinas.  He  was  engaged  in 
the  capture  of  Fort  Watson,  took  Georgetown,  commanded  the  right  at 
Eutaw  Springs,  and  continued  his  harassing  of  the  British  through  1782. 
He  was  subsequently  a  State  Senator. 

Mark,  a  silver  coin  weighing  eleven  pennyweights  six  grains,  offered 
by  Morris  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1783  for  consideration  as  a 
national  coin,  but  not  accepted.  It  was  equivalent  to  ten  of  his  ' '  cents, ' ' 
seventy  of  ours.  Obverse  :  An  eye,  the  center  of  a  glory,  thirteen-points 
cross,  equidistant  a  circle  of  as  many  stars.  Legend  :  Nova  Constella- 
tio.  Reverse  :  U.  S.  1.000,  a  wreath  surrounding.  Legend  :  Libertas. 
Justitia.  1783.  This,  with  the  quint,  were  known  as  the  Nova  Constel- 
latio  patterns. 

Marmaduke,  John  S.  (1833-1887),  was  promoted  major-general 
in  the  Confederate  service,  and  fought  at  Shiloh,  Little  Rock  and  Fort 
Scott.  He  was  elected  Governor  of  Missouri  in  1884,  and  served  till  his 
death. 

"Marmion,"  Case  of  the.  Under  an  act  of  the  South  Carolina 
Legislature  passed  in  1822,  any  free  negroes  entering  the  ports  of  the 
State  on  ships  could  be  imprisoned  until  the  ship  departed.  This  was 
done  in  the  case  of  the  "  Marmion."  In  1824  the  Attorney-General  and 
in  1823  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  rendered  opinions  that 
this  law  was  incompatible  with  the  Constitution  and  the  international 
obligations  of  the  United  States. 

Marquette,  Jacques  (1637-1675),  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the 
"  pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World,"  was  born  at  Laon  in  France, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  429 

and  entered  the  Jesuit  order.  In  1666  he  emigrated  to  Canada.  In  the 
course  of  his  missionary  work  among  the  Indians  in  the  Great  I^ake  re- 
gion he  made  various  explorations.  He  founded  a  mission  at  Sault 
Sainte  Marie  and  one  at  Mackinaw.  Marquette  and  Joliet,  in  1673, 
made  a  long  journey  by  canoes  by  way  of  the  Illinois  River  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  down  that  stream  to  Arkansas  ;  of  this  voyage  Marquette 
has  left  an  account  in  his  journal.  The  next  year  he  built  a  log  hut  on 
the  site  of  Chicago,  and  thence  pushed  on  to  Kaskaskia.  While  labor- 
ing among  the  Illinois  Indians  his  health  gave  way,  and  he  died  on  his 
return  to  the  North. 

Marsh,  George  P.  (1S01-1882),  represented  Vermont  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1843  to  l849-  He  was  Minister  to  Turkey 
from  1849  to  1853,  and  to  Italy  from  1861  to  1882,  and  was  a  distin- 
guished scholar. 

Marshall,  Humphrey  (1812-1872),  represented  Kentucky  in  the 
U.  S.  Congress  as  a  Whig  from  1849  to  1852,  and  from  1855  to  1859.  He 
was  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  army  and  a  Confederate 
Senator. 

Marshall,  James  W.  (1812-1885),  discovered  the  first  gold  in 
California  while  superintending  the  construction  of  a  mill-race  in 
Coloma,  1848. 

Marshall,  John  (September  24,  1755— July  6,  1835),  the  greatest  of 
American  jurists,  was  born  at  Germautown,  Fauquier  County,  Va.  He 
was  deprived  of  a  collegiate  education,  and  was  a  youth  when  the  Rev- 
olutionary War  began.  Young  Marshall  served  as  a  regimental  officer 
through  the  struggle,  and  fought  at  Brandywine,  Monmouth,  etc.  He 
then  applied  himself  to  the  law,  entered  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses 
and  the  council.  As  a  member  of  the  convention  for  ratifying  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  1788,  he  contended  on  the  Federalist  side  ably 
and  successfully  against  the  eloquence  of  Patrick  Henry  and  his  col- 
leagues. With  Gerry  and  C.  C.  Pinckney  he  was  Envoy  to  France  in 
1797  at  the  time  of  Talleyrand's  attempted  bribery  of  the  United  States. 
Returning  the  next  year  he  served  as  Congressman  in  1799-1800,  and  as 
Secretary  of  State  1S00-1801.  President  Adams  in  1S01  appointed  Mar- 
shall Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  which  position  he  held  until 
his  death.  He  is  famous  in  the  national  annals  for  his  great  opinions 
defining  and  interpreting  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  aiding  to  con- 
solidate the  Union.  He  presided  over  the  Burr  trial,  and  in  1829  was 
a  member  of  the  Virginia  convention  for  revising  the  State  Constitu- 
tion.    Marshall  wrote  a  life  of  Washington  in  five  volumes,  afterward 


43°  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

revised  and  condensed  in  two  volumes.     His  writings  were  edited  by 
Story. 

Marshals.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  provided  for  officers  called 
marshals,  whose  functions  with  respect  to  the  Federal  courts  were  to  be 
like  those  of  sheriffs  with  respect  to  the  State  courts.  In  1790  they 
were  intrusted  with  the  census  enumeration,  and  so  frequently  with 
respect  to  later  censuses. 

Marshfield,  Mass.,  noted  as  the  home  of  Daniel  Webster.  He 
died  and  was  buried  there. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  discovered  in  1602  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold, 
who  gave  the  name  to  a  smaller  island  now  called  No  Man's  Land, 
whence  it  was  transferred.  Martha's  Vineyard  was  at  first'called  Capa- 
wak.  It  was  settled  in  1642  by  Thomas  Mayhew,  an  English  merchant, 
who  purchased  the  island  from  Lord  Stirling,  to  whom  it  had  been 
granted  with  other  territory.  Mayhew  established  a  missionary  post  and 
made  many  converts  among  the  Indians.  In  1644,  the  island  was 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts  by  the  Federal  Commis- 
sioners of  New  England.  It  was  later  transferred  to  New  York,  but 
was  restored  to  Massachusetts  in  1692. 

Martin,  I/Uther  (1744-1826),  Attorney-General  of  Maryland,  was  a 
member  of  the  Annapolis  Convention.  He  was  a  delegate  from  Mary- 
land to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1784  to  1785.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  but  opposed  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution.  He  was  counsel  for  defense  in  the  trials  of  Judge 
Chase  and  Aaron  Burr,  having  in  his  later  years  become  a  Federalist. 

Martin  vs.  Hunter's  I/essee,  Virginia.  In  1791  Martin  brought 
a  suit  of  ejectment  against  the  defendant  in  the  District  Court  of  Vir- 
ginia for  the  recovery  of  certain  lands.  This  court  decided  for  the  de- 
fendant. The  Court  of  Appeals  of  Virginia  reversed  this  decision,  and 
their  judgment  was  in  turn  reversed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  1816.  This  judgment  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Virginia  refused 
to  execute,  being  of  the  "  unanimous  opinion  that  the  appellate  power 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  does  not  extend  to  this  court 
under  a  sound  construction  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States," 
and  "  that  the  Act  of  Congress  to  that  effect  is  not  in  pursuance  of  the 
said  Constitution."  The  Supreme  Court  overruled  this  decision  and 
established  its  prerogative  upon  such  points. 

Martling  Men,  in  New  York  political  history,  the  members  of  a 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  431 

union  of  Burrites  and  Lewisites  (followers  of  Morgan  Lewis),  mostly 
Democrats,  formed  in  1807.  So  called  because  their  usual  place  of 
meeting  was  "  Martling's  long  room."  They  were  connected  with  the 
Tammany  Society,  and  were  later  known  as  Bucktails. 

Maryland,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  Maryland  was 
founded  by  Cecil  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Roman  Catholic,  in  1634. 
His  father,  George  Calvert,  was  a  member  of  the  London  Company  and 
Secretary  of  State  under  James  I.  from  1618  to  1625.  He  had  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  found  a  colony  on  Newfoundland  in  1621  (see 
Avalon),  and  in  1629  he  had  landed  in  Virginia  with  forty  Catholic 
colonists,  but  they  were  not  welcomed  by  the  Protestants  of  Virginia 
and  soon  returned  home.  Charles  I.  then  gave  to  Baltimore  a  charter 
for  the  land  north  of  the  Potomac  River  as  far  as  the  forty-first  degree 
of  latitude  and  to  the  source  of  the  Potomac  River  on  the  west.  This 
territory  lay  within  the  grant  to  Virginia.  The  name  Maryland  was 
given  in  honor  of  the  queen,  Henrietta  Maria.  The  government  of  the 
colony  was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  proprietor.  St.  Mary's,  the  first 
settlement,  was  founded  in  1634  by  two  hundred  colonists,  many  of 
whom  were  Protestants.  Baltimore  maintained  toleration  for  all.  But 
from  1691  until  the  Revolution  the  Protestants  were  strong  enough  to 
disfranchise  the  Catholics.  In  1635  Clayborne,  a  Virginian  who  had  a 
trading  post  on  Kent  Island,  within  the  grant  to  Maryland,  and  who 
had  been  ejected  by  Calvert,  invaded  Maryland  at  the  head  of  a  party 
of  rangers  and  obtained  temporary  control  of  the  colony. — Maryland 
refused  to  ratify  the  Articles  of  Confederation  which  had  been  adopted 
by  Congress  in  1777  until  March  1,  1781.  The  State  had  no  western 
territory  herself  and  demanded  that  Virginia,  New  York  and  other 
States  should  surrender  their  claims  to  lands  beyond  the  Alleghanies  to 
the  General  Government.  When  their  intention  to  do  this  was  signified 
by  those  States,  Maryland  ratified  the  articles  and  they  became  at  once 
binding  on  all  the  States.  The  Constitution  was  adopted  April  28, 1788, 
by  a  vote  of  sixty-three  to  eleven.  The  Federalists  controlled  the  State 
until  1802.  In  1812  the  Hanson  riots  in  Baltimore,  caused  by  an  attack 
on  a  Federalist  newspaper  office,  resulted  in  the  restoration  of  the  State 
to  the  Federalist  party.  From  1820  to  1850  the  State  was  Anti-Demo- 
cratic (Whig).  The  American  party  controlled  the  State  from  1854  to 
1859.  In  1860-61  the  people  generally  were  opposed  to  secession.  The 
Civil  War  began  with  the  Baltimore  riots  in  1861.  From  1868  to  the 
present  time  (1894)  the  State  has  been  Democratic.  The  population  of 
the  State  in   1790  was  319,728;  in  1890,  1,042,390.     History  by  Scharf. 

"Maryland  Gazette,"  earliest  newspaper  published  in  Maryland. 


432  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

It  was  established  at  Annapolis  in  1727  by  William  Parks,  and  continued 
irregularly  as  a  weekly  until  about  1736,  when  it  was  suspended.  In 
1745  another  Gazette  appeared,  which,  with  the  exception  of  a  short 
suspension  in  1765  on  account  of  the  Stamp  Act,  was  published  regularly 
during  the  Revolution,  and  still  exists  as  a  weekly  journal,  there  being 
but  one  newspaper  in  the  United  States  of  prior  origin.  Maryland  was 
the  fourth  colony  in  which  a  newspaper  was  established. 

Maryland  in  I/iberia,  a  negro  colony,  composed  largely  of  Mary- 
land free  negroes,  founded  in  Liberia  in  February,  1834,  by  the  Mary- 
land State  Colonization  Society,  which  had  been  organized  three  years 
before.  Expeditions  had  been  sent  out  and  landed  at  Monrovia  in  183 1 
and  1832,  but  these  had  proved  unsuccessful,  and  the  colonists  were 
removed  to  Cape  Palmas,  where  the  "  Maryland  "  settlement  was  finally 
made.  This  settlement  was  an  entire  success.  John  Russworm,  a 
citizen  of  Monrovia,  was  chosen  as  the  first  Governor  in  1836. 

Mason,  Charles  (1730-1787),  an  English  surveyor,  was  commis- 
sioned with  Jeremiah  Dixon  from  1763  to  1767  to  survey  the  boundary 
line  between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  famous  as  marking  the 
boundary  between  the  free  and  the  slave  States. 

Mason,  George  (1725-1792),  an  American  Revolutionary  leader, 
was  one  of  the  great  Virginians  of  that  epoch.  He  drafted  in  1769  the 
"  non-importation  "  resolutions  in  the  Virginia  Assembly,  and  was  one 
of  the  chief  members  of  that  body.  In  1776  he  drafted  the  Bill  of  Rights 
and  the  new  State  Constitution.  He  had  an  active  part  in  the  debates 
of  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787,  but  refused  to  sign  the  Constitution, 
and  went  home  to  throw  the  weight  of  his  great  influence  on  the  Anti- 
Federalist  side  in  the  ratifying  Convention  of  1788. 

Mason,  James  M.  (1798-1871),  Senator,  was  a  member  of  the  Vir- 
ginia House  of  Delegates  from  1826  to  1832.  He  represented  Virginia 
in  the  XL  S.  Congress  as  a  Jackson  Democrat  from  1837  to  1839.  He 
was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1847  to  186 r.  He  was  the  author  of  the  Fugi- 
tive Slave  Law  of  1S50.  He  was  appointed  Confederate  Commissioner 
to  England  in  1861,  serving  till  1865. 

Mason,  Jeremiah  (1768-1848),  was  Attorney-General  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1802.  He  was  a  Federalist  U.  S.  Senator  from  New 
Hampshire  from  1813  to  1817.  His  reappointment  as  president  of  the 
Portsmouth  branch  of  the  U.  S.  Bank  caused  dissatisfaction  in  Jack- 
son's administration,  and  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  U.  S.  Bank.     He 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  433 

was  one  of  the  most  vigorous,  acute  and  powerful  advocates  America 
has  produced. 

Mason,  John  ( 1600-1672),  came  to  America  from  England  in  1630. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Windsor,  Conn.,  in  1635.  He  success- 
fully conducted  the  Pequot  War  in  1637.  He  was  major  of  the  Con- 
necticut forces  from  1637  to  1672,  and  Deputy-Governor  of  Connecticut 
from  1660  to  1670.     He  published  ' '  Relation  of  Trouble  by  the  Indians. " 

Mason,  John  Y.  (1799-1859),  represented  Virginia  in  Congress  as  a 
Democrat  from  183 1  to  1837.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Tyler's 
Cabinet  from  1844  to  1845,  Attorney-General  in  Polk's  from  1845  to 
1846,  and  Secretary  of  the  Navy  from  1846  to  1849.  He  was  Minister  to 
France  from  1854  to  1859,  and  joined  with  Buchanan  and  Soule*  in  the 
Ostend  Manifesto. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  I4ne,  the  boundary  line  between  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Maryland,  so  called  from  the  names  of  the  two  English  sur- 
veyors, Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  who  were  employed  by 
William  Penn  and  Lord  Baltimore  to  mark  it  off  in  1766,  after  the  set- 
tlement of  the  case  of  Penn  vs.  Baltimore.  Mason  and  Dixon  marked 
the  line  with  boundary  posts,  having  on  one  side  the  arms  of  Penn  and 
on  the  other  those  of  Baltimore.  The  line  became  famous  as  the  delimita- 
tion of  boundary  between  free  States  and  slave  States. 

Mason,  Win.  E.,  see  appendix,  page  487. 

Massachusetts  derives  its  name  from  an  Indian  word  meaning  the 
1 '  great  hills, ' '  i.  e. ,  the  Blue  Hills  near  Boston.  The  first  settlement  made 
by  Gosnold  on  Cuttyhunk,  in  1602,  was  a  failure.  The  first  permanent 
settlement  was  made  ( 1620)  at  Plymouth,  by  120  English  Independents 
from  Leyden.  The  colonists  who  came  over  in  the  "Mayflower"  in- 
tended to  found  a  settlement  in  Northern  Virginia,  and  had  obtained  a 
charter  from  the  London  Company  for  that  purpose.  When  forced  to 
land  in  Massachusetts  they  signed  the  famous  compact  on  board  the 
11  Mayflower,"  in  which  they  agreed  to  abide  by  such  laws  as  should  be 
passed  for  the  welfare  of  the  colony.  Their  leaders  were  John  Carver 
and  William  Bradford.  For  four  years  they  struggled  under  the  dis- 
advantage of  a  system  of  communism.  In  1627  the  colonists  purchased 
the  financial  interest  of  the  London  merchants  who  had  advanced 
money  for  the  enterprise.  The  colony  was  never  able  to  obtain  a  char- 
ter from  the  king  because  of  its  avowed  opposition  to  the  Church  of 
England,  and  in  1691  it  was  incorporated  with  Massachusetts  Bay 
colony.  The  foundation  of  the  latter  colony  was  laid  by  some  Dorches- 
ter merchants,  who  in  1623  made  a  settlement  on  Cape  Ann  for 
trading  purposes.  In  1626  this  settlement  was  moved  to  Salem  by 
Vol.  V.— 28 


434  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Conant.  Two  years  later  certain  leading  Puritans  of  England  obtained 
a  grant  from  the  Plymouth  Company  for  the  land  from  three  miles  south 
of  the  Charles  River  to  three  miles  north  of  the  Merrimac,  and  westward 
to  the  ''South  Sea."  Organizing  ostensibly  as  a  trading  company, 
they  obtained  a  charter  from  Charles  I.  In  1630  the  government  of 
the  company  was  moved  to  America,  and  1,000  conforming  Puritans 
came  over  under  Winthrop,  Dudley,  Higginson  and  Skelton,  and 
founded  Charlestown,  Cambridge,  Watertown,  Roxbury  and  Boston. 
None  but  church  members  were  allowed  to  vote.  In  1631,  upon  the 
refusal  of  Watertown  to  pay  a  tax,  because  of  no  representation,  the 
House  of  Representatives  was  formed  of  two  members  from  each  town. 
In  1644  the  General  Court  became  bicameral.  Massachusetts  prepared 
to  resist  by  force  an  attack  from  England  on  her  charter  in  1634. 
Harvard  College  was  founded  (1636),  and  Roger  Williams  banished  from 
the  colony  for  preaching  against  the  connection  of  Church  and  State.  In 
1637  occurred  the  trouble  with  Anne  Hutchinson  and  the  Antinomians. 
In  the  same  year  the  Pequods  of  Connecticut  were  crushed.  In  1641 
the  first  body  of  statutes,  called  the  ' '  Body  of  Liberties, ' '  was  adopted. 
Massachusetts  joined  the  New  England  confederation  in  1643.  In  1648 
the  Cambridge  platform  was  formulated,  and  four  years  later  a  colonial 
mint  was  established.  The  first  Quakers  arrived  in  Boston  in  1656,  and 
a  law  was  soon  passed  against  "Quakers  and  Ranters."  In  1674  King 
Philip's  War  broke  out.  The  charter  was  revoked  in  1684,  and  two 
years  later  Andros  was  sent  over  as  royal  Governor.  A  new  charter 
was  obtained  in  1691,  by  which  the  religious  qualification  was  abolished 
and  the  colony  made  a  royal  province,  its  Governor  to  be  appointed  by 
the  crown.  Witchcraft  appeared  at  Salem  and  twenty  persons  were 
executed  as  witches  in  1692.  Massachusetts  aided  England  in  the 
French  and  Indian  Wars,  by  capturing  Port  Royal  in  1690,  and  Louis- 
bourg  in  1745.  The  boundary  line  with  New  Hampshire  was  settled  in 
1737.  From  1765  to  1776  the  history  of  the  State  is  the  history  of  the 
American  Revolution.  1765  :  Stamp  Act  passed  and  Massachusetts 
issued  a  call  for  the  "Stamp  Act  Congress"  to  meet  in  New  York. 
1768  :  English  troops  were  sent  to  Boston.     1770  :  "  Boston  Massacre." 

1773  :  "  Boston  Tea  Party,"  when  $100,000  worth  of  tea  was  destroyed. 

1774  :  Boston  port  was  closed  by  the  English.  The  colony,  being  vir- 
tually deprived  of  her  charter,  organized  a  government  of  her  own. 

1775  :  April  19,  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord.  June  17,  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill.  Massachusetts  furnished,  all  years  together,  92,563  men 
to  the  army.  In  1780  a  new  State  Constitution  was  adopted,  which 
was  drawn  up  largely  by  John  Adams.  By  a  judicial  interpretation  of 
the  preamble  of  this  Constitution,  the  institution  of  slavery  was  des- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  435 

troyed.  In  1786  occurred  Shay's  Rebellion  at  Worcester  and  Spring- 
field. A  severe  struggle  took  place  over  the  adoption  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  which  was  finally  adopted  February  6,  1788,  by  a  vote  of 
187  to  168.  The  opponents  of  the  Constitution  were  led  by  S.  Adams, 
Hancock  and  Gerry.  Its  advocates  were  Rufus  King,  Theophilus 
Parsons  and  Fisher  Ames.  The  State  was  usually  kept  Federalist  until 
1823  by  the  ability  of  the  Federalist  leaders  and  her  large  commercial 
interests,  injured  by  the  foreign  policy  of  the  Democrats.  The  Em- 
bargo Act  caused  great  indignation  in  the  State.  It  was  opposed  to 
the  War  of  1812,  and  in  1814  sent  representatives  to  the  Hartford  Con- 
vention. In  1820  Maine  became  a  separate  State.  In  1823  the  Demo- 
crats came  into  power  permanently,  and  the  Federalists  became  extinct. 
From  this  time  Massachusetts  allied  herself  with  Pennsylvania,  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana  and  other  States  in  the  support  of  a  protective  tariff. 
This  change  was  caused  by  the  growth  of  her  manufacturing  industries. 
In  1833  the  Congregationalist  Church  was  disestablished.  Davis,  a 
Whig,  was  elected  Governor  in  1834.  In  1839  Morton  was  elected 
Governor  by  the  Democrats  by  a  majority  of  two.  The  State  cast  a 
large  vote  for  the  candidates  of  the  Liberty  party  in  1844  and  1845,  and 
for  those  of  the  Free-Soil  party  in  1848  and  1849.  In  1850,  by  a  coali- 
tion of  Democrats  and  Free-Soilers,  the  latter  secured  the  election  of 
Charles  Sumner  as  U.  S.  Senator.  The  Republicans  controlled  the 
State  from  1856  to  1874.  In  1878  B.  F.  Butler  was  elected  Governor  by 
the  discontented  Democrats  and  the  Greenback  party.  The  Demo- 
crats elected  the  Governor  in  the  years  1882,  1890,  1891  and  1892.  The 
State  is  uniformly  Republican  in  Presidential  elections.  The  popula- 
tion of  Massachusetts  in  1790  was  378,787 ;  in  1840,  737,699  ;  in  1890, 
2,238,943. 

Massachusetts  Company.  On  March  19,  1628,  there  was  granted 
to  six  patentees,  of  whom  John  Humphrey  and  John  Kndicott  were 
destined  to  be  most  prominent,  territory  extending  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Western  Ocean,  and  in  width  from  a  line  running  three  miles 
north  of  the  Merrimac  to  one  running  three  miles  south  of  the  Charles. 
This  was  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company.  Kndicott  was  sent  over 
the  same  year  and  effected  a  settlement  at  Naumkeag,  or  Salem,  Sep- 
tember 6.  March  4,  1629,  a  charter  was  granted  to  the  Governor  and 
Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  under  this  instrument  Massa- 
chusetts conduced  her  affairs  for  fifty-five  years.  The  colony  was  ruled 
by  the  Governor  and  thirteen  councilors.  The  charter  was  transferred 
from  England  to  America  with  Winthrop. 

Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  the  first  historical  associa* 


436  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

tion  established  in  the  United  States.  It  was  organized  at  Boston  in 
1791  "to  collect,  preserve  and  communicate  materials  for  a  complete 
history  of  the  country."  It  has  published  fifty-six  volumes  of  "  Col- 
lections "  and  twenty-one  of  "Proceedings,"  upon  a  great  variety  of 
historical  subjects.  Since  the  establishment  of  this  association,  students 
of  history  in  many  of  the  other  States  have  founded  similar  societies. 

Massachusetts  Indians,  at  the  time  of  the  English  settlement  of 
the  State,  were  composed  of  five  Algonquin  tribes.  The  Nipmucks 
occupied  central  Massachusetts,  the  Pannacooks  what  is  now  New 
Hampshire,  the  Massachusetts  the  lands  around  Massachusetts  Bay, 
the  Nausets  Cape  Cod,  while  the  Pokanokets  lived  in  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  State.  All  except  the  Nausets  were  friendly  to  the  set- 
tlers, and  this  tribe  entered  into  a  peace  with  the  Plymouth  colonists. 
Missions  were  begun  on  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1644,  and  in  1651  Indian 
converts  under  John  Elliott  were  gathered  at  Natick.  The  converts 
were  termed  Praying  Indians.  At  length  discontent  arose  which  in  1675 
led  to  King  Philip's  War. 

"  Massachusetts  Spy,"  founded  at  Boston,  August  1,  1770.  This 
newspaper  was  established  to  support  the  Whig  element  in  the  New 
England  colonies  in  opposition  to  the  Boston  Chronicle,  which  favored 
the  British  Government.  It  was  edited  by  Isaiah  Thomas,  and  was  sus- 
pended in  six  months  for  a  time,  but  was  begun  again  and  removed  to 
Worcester.  Contributions  were  at  first  made  by  members  of  both 
political  parties,  but  its  sympathies  were  so  evidently  revolutionary  that 
the  royalist  writers  withdrew.  Notably  among  the  contributions  con- 
cerning political  questions  were  those  signed  "  Centinel,"  "  Leonidas  " 
and  "  Mucius  Scsevola."     It  is  still  published  daily  and  weekly. 

Massasoit  (i58o?-i66o),  chief  of  the  Waupanoag  Indians,  made  a 
treaty  of  peace  and  mutual  protection  with  the  Plymouth  colony  in  162 1, 
which  was  kept  for  over  fifty  years.  He  resided  in  what  is  now  the 
town  of  Warren,  R.  I.  He  was  always  friendly  to  the  colonists,  and 
warned  them  of  intended  Indian  attacks.  He  was  father  of  King 
Philip. 

Mather,  Cotton  (1663-1728),  graduated  from  Harvard  before  he 
was  sixteen  years  old.  He  was  active  in  urging  on  the  witchcraft  perse- 
cutions. He  wrote  much  against  intemperance,  and  in  every  way  aimed 
at  being  useful  to  society,  but  was  exceedingly  meddlesome,  pedantic 
and  conceited.  He  was  probably  the  most  learned  man  in  America  at 
the  time  in  which  he  lived,  having  a  wide  acquaintance  with  books  and 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  437 

foreign  languages.  His  works  number  382.  The  chief  is  his  "Mag- 
nalia  Christi  Americana,"  a  church  history  of  New  England,  published 
in  1702. 

Mather,  Increase  (1639-1723),  was  pastor  of  the  North  Church, 
Boston,  from  1664  till  his  death.  He  was  prominent  both  in  Church 
and  State.  He  was  opposed  to  the  "  half-way  covenant,"  and  secured 
the  summoning  of  the  synods  of  1679  anc*  1680.  He  zealously  opposed 
the  surrender  of  the  Massachusetts  charter  to  Charles  II.  in  1683,  and 
secured  a  new  charter  for  the  colony  in  1688.  He  was  president  of 
Harvard  College  from  1685  to  1701.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Reverend  Rich- 
ard Mather,  ' '  A  History  of  the  War  with  the  Indians, ' '  and  many  other 
works. 

Matthews,  Stanley  (1824-1889),  commanded  a  brigade  at  Mur- 
freesboro,  Chickamauga  and  Lookout  Mountain  in  the  Civil  War.  He 
represented  Ohio  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1877  to  1879. 
He  was  a  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  from  1881  to  1889. 

Maurepas,  Jean  F.  P.,  Comte  de  (1701-1781),  was  French  Min- 
ister of  State  from  1738  to  1749  and  from  1774  to  1781.  He  aided  in 
negotiating  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  United  States  in  1778. 

Maury,  Matthew  F.  (1806-1873),  naval  officer,  wrote  a  famous 
"  Physical  Geography  of  the  Seas."  In  1861  he  commanded  in  the 
Confederate  navy,  and  afterward  was  Confederate  Commissioner  in 
Europe.    See  appendix,  page  487. 

Maxey,  Samuel  B.,  born  in  1825,  served  during  the  Mexican  War, 
and  was  made  major-general  in  the  Confederate  service.  He  represented 
Texas  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat,  from  1875  to  1887.     Died  1895. 

Maximilian  (Ferdinand  Max.  Joseph)  (1832-1867),  Archduke 
of  Austria,  became  prominent  for  his  enlightened  administration  of  the 
I,ombardo-Venetian  kingdom.  In  1863  France  called  an  assembly  of 
notables  in  Mexico,  which  approved  a  monarchical  form  of  government 
and  offered  the  crown  of  Mexico  to  Maximilian.  He  became  emperor 
in  1864,  but  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  a  powerful  Republican  faction. 
He  was  able  to  maintain  his  position  only  by  aid  of  French  troops, 
which  were  withdrawn  at  the  solicitation  of  the  United  States.  Max- 
imilian was  soon  afterward  deposed  and  shot. 

"  Mayflower  "  Compact,  the  compact  made  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
in  the  cabin  of  the  "  Mayflower,"  in  Provincetown  harbor,  November 
11,  1620,  whereby,  before  landing,  they  bound  themselves  into  a  "  civil 


438  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

body  politic,"  and  promised  obedience  to  the  laws  they  should  make 
as  such. 

Maynard,  Horace  (1814-1882),  represented  Tennessee  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  an  American  and  Republican  from  1857  to  1863  and  from 
1866  to  1875.  He  was  Minister  to  Russia  from  1875  to  1880.  He  was 
Postmaster-General  in  Hayes'  Cabinet  from  1880  to  1881, 

Mafcfcei  I^etter,  a  private  business  letter  written  by  Thomas  Jefferson 
to  an  Italian  named  Mazzei  in  1796.  The  paragraph  therein  contained, 
to  the  effect  that  "  an  Anglican  monarchical  aristocratical  party"  had 
sprung  up  in  America,  whose  avowed  object  was  "  to  draw  over  us  the 
substance,  as  they  had  already  done  the  forms,  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment," did  much  toward  arousing  animosity  against  Jefferson,  when 
the  letter  became  public  property  in  1797.  It  had  been  translated  into 
Italian,  then  into  French,  and  finally  appeared  in  an  English  paper. 
An  allusion  in  it  to  men  who  had  been  "  Samsons  in  the  field  and  Solo- 
mons in  the  council ' '  was  construed  as  an  attack  on  Washington. 

Meade,  George  Gordon  (1815-1872),  a  Federal  general  in  the  Civil 
War,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  fought  in  the  Mexican  War  and 
against  the  Seminoles,  and  was  busy  in  the  surveying  department. 
Soon  after  the  Rebellion  had  commenced,  he  was  assigned  to  a  brigade 
in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  was  wounded  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles, 
and  fought  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  At  Antietam  and  Fred- 
ericksburg he  commanded  a  division,  and  at  Chancellorsville  a  corps. 
At  the  end  of  June,  1863,  Meade  was  appointed  to  supersede  Hooker  in 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac ;  Lee's  great  invasion  of  the 
North  was  in  progress,  and  Meade  was  near  Frederick.  Almost  imme- 
diately afterward  occurred  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  (which  see).  The 
chief  credit  for  this  decisive  Union  victory  is  variously  claimed  for  the 
commander-in-chief,  for  Hancock,  Howard,  Reynolds  and  other  corps 
commanders ;  Meade  arrived  on  the  battle-field  about  noon  of  the 
second  day.  He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army,  and 
the  next  year  major-general.  Under  Grant  in  1864-65  he  was  in  imme- 
diate charge  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  after  the  war  held  com- 
mand of  different  departments. 

Meagher,  Thomas  F.  (1823-1867),  was  banished  from  Ireland  in 
1849  f°r  political  reasons,  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852.  He 
commanded  a  New  York  brigade  at  Manassas,  Antietam  and  Fredericks- 
burg. 

Mechanicsville,  Va.,  a  battle  of  the  Civil  War  occurring  June  26, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  439 

1862,  during  McClellan's  attempted  approach  to  Richmond.  I<ee 
crossed  the  Chickahominy  with  35,000  Confederates,  intending  to  join 
Jackson's  25,000  troops  and  demolish  Porter's  command  of  20,000  of 
McClellan's  troops  and  cut  off  the  latter's  communications  with  his 
base.  Jackson  was  for  once  late  in  arriving,  and  Richmond  was  for  a 
time  in  considerable  danger.  A.  P.  Hill's  division  advanced  first  and 
encountered  at  Mechanicsville  a  small  force  of  Union  troops,  who  were 
dispersed.  Just  beyond  the  town  McCall  was  drawn  up  with  a  strong 
force  on  Beaver  Dam  Creek.  The  Confederates  attempted  to  turn 
McCall's  flanks,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  each  time. 

Mecklenburg  Declaration.  It  has  been  vigorously  affirmed  and 
vigorously  denied  that,  on  May  20,  1775,  a  convention  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Mecklenburg  County,  North  Carolina,  passed  resolutions  in 
favor  of  independence  from  Great  Britain,  and  actually  declaring  the 
independence  of  Mecklenburg  County.  The  declaration  first  became 
generally  known  in  1818.  It  was  alleged,  however,  that  the  original 
documents  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1800.  The  probability  is  that  the 
story  arises  from  action  taken  on  May  31,  1775,  when  resolutions  were 
passed  importing  resistance  to  the  royal  governor,  but  not  independence. 

Medical  College.  The  first  medical  school  in  the  United  States 
was  established  in  Philadelphia,  1751. 

Mediterranean  Fund.  In  1801-02  the  wars  with  the  Barbary 
pirates  necessitated  a  slight  increase  in  import  duties,  and  the  money 
thus  accruing  was  termed  the  "  Mediterranean  Fund."  This  was  made 
a  basis  for  the  increase  of  protection  in  the  tariff  levied  in  1816. 

Meigs,  Montgomery  C,  born  in  1816,  was  superintending  engi- 
neer in  the  construction  of  Forts  "Wayne,  Porter,  Niagara,  Ontario  and 
Montgomery.  He  was  quartermaster-general  of  the  U.  S.  army  from 
1861  to  1882,  when  he  retired. 

Meigs,  Return  Jonathan  (1734-1823),  was  a  major  in  Arnold's 
expedition  to  Quebec  in  1775.  A*  Sag  Harbor  in  1777  he  took  ninety 
prisoners,  destroyed  twelve  ships  and  much  forage  without  the  lose  of 
a  man.     He  commanded  a  regiment  at  Stony  Point. 

Meigs,  Return  Jonathan,  Jr.  (1765-1825),  represented  Ohio  in 
the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Democrat  from  1809  to  1810.  He  was  Governor 
of  Ohio  from  1810  to  1814.  He  was  Postmaster-General  from  1814  to 
1823  in  the  Cabinets  of  Madison  and  Monroe. 

Meigs,  Fort   (War  of  181 2).      After  the  massacre  at  the  River 


440  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Raisin,  the  main  body  of  Americans  intrenched  themselves  on  the 
Maumee,  building  the  fort.  Here  they  were  besieged,  April  26,  1813, 
by  more  than  2,000  British  and  Indians,  commanded  by  General  Procter 
and  the  chief  Tecumtha.  On  May  5  General  Clay  arrived  with  rein- 
forcements for  the  Americans.  Of  these  800  attacked  the  British  bat- 
teries, and  the  rest  tried  to  cut  their  way  through  the  enemy.  The 
batteries  were  taken,  but  recaptured  by  the  British,  the  Americans 
losing  all  of  the  800  but  170  who  escaped  to  Fort  Meigs.  The  other 
detachment,  aided  by  timely  sorties  from  the  fort,  defeated  the  force 
opposed  to  them  and  thus  broke  up  the  siege.  The  Indian  allies 
deserted  the  British,  who  returned  to  Canada. 

Melville,  George  W.,  born  in  1841,  became  chief  engineer  of  the 
De  Long  Arctic  expedition  in  1879,  and  commanded  the  only  party 
which  survived  the  expedition.  He  was  made  a  chief  engineer  in  the 
U.  S.  navy  in  1881. 

Memminger,  Charles  G.  (1803-1888),  born  in  Germany,  settled 
in  South  Carolina.  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Confederates  States. 

Memphis,  Tenn.,  was  laid  out  as  a  village  in  1820  and  incorpo- 
rated in  1 83 1.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  early  held  by  the  Confeder- 
ates with  a  fleet  of  eight  vessels  under  Commodore  Montgomery.  It 
was  rendered  defenseless  and  captured  by  the  Federals  June  6,  1862. 
Commodore  Davis  left  Fort  Pillow  June  4,  with  nine  Union  vessels,  and 
proceeded  at  once  to  Memphis,  before  which  the  Confederate  fleet  lay. 
An  attack  upon  these  ships  was  immediately  begun.  Four  ram-boats 
under  the  Union  commander,  Ellet,  joined  Davis  and  did  much  toward 
destroying  the  Confederate  fleet.  Several  of  the  Confederate  ships  had 
their  boilers  shot  through  and  their  crews  scalded  to  death.  Their 
fleet  was  utterly  demolished.  During  1870-80  the  city  was  ravaged  by 
yellow  fever,  but  it  has  since  completed  a  sewage  system,  at  great  ex- 
pense, which  relieves  it  of  the  danger  of  the  scourge. 

Menendefc  de  Aviles,  Pedro  (d.  1574),  Spanish  commander,  in 
1565  founded  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  and  destroyed  the  French  Huguenot 
settlement  at  Port  Royal. 

Mennonites,  a  sect  that  sprang  up  in  Holland  and  Germany  about 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  through  the  influence  of  Simon  Menno. 
In  doctrine  they  are  allied  to  the  Baptists.  Members  of  this  body  came 
to  this  country  as  early  as  1683,  and  by  invitation  of  William  Penn 
settled  in  Pennsylvania.     In  1727  they  published  a  Confession  of  Faith. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  441 

In  this   country  there  are  several  varieties  of  Mennonites,  differing 
mainly  in  externals,  and  numbering  in  all  about  60,000  members. 

Menomonees,  a  tribe  of  Algonquin  Indians,  were  unfriendly  to  the 
English,  but  took  sides  against  the  colonists  during  the  Revolution.  In 
1812  also  they  allied  themselves  with  the  British,  taking  part  in  several 
engagements.  Treaties  were  made  in  181 7,  1825  and  1827.  In  1831 
they  began  to  cede  their  lands  around  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan. 
They  aided  the  Government  in  the  Sac  and  Fox  War  and  in  the 
Rebellion. 

Mercer,  Hugh  (i72o?-i777),  came  to  America  from  Scotland  in 
1747.  He  served  in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  He  was  chosen  brig- 
adier-general in  1776,  with  command  of  the  flying  camp.  He  com- 
manded a  column  at  Trenton  and  led  the  advance  at  Princeton,  where 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  British  and  fought  to  the  death  rather  than 
surrender. 

Mercer,  John  F.  (1759-1821),  served  during  the  Revolution.  He 
represented  Virginia  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  1782  to  1785. 
He  was  a  U.  S.  Congressman  from  Maryland  from  1792  to  1794,  and 
Governor  of  Maryland  from  1 801  to  1803. 

Mercer,  Fort,  Capture  of,  November,  1777.  Fort  Mercer,  on  the 
Jersey  shore  of  the  Delaware,  below  Philadelphia,  with  Fort  Mifflin  op- 
posite, commanded  the  stream.  To  ensure  his  supplies,  Howe  attempted 
to  carry  the  forts  October  22.  He  lost  400  Hessian  troops  and  their 
commander,  Donop ;  American  loss,  thirty-seven.  After  a  month's 
hard  work,  assisted  by  6,000  men  from  New  York,  he  carried  the  works 
and  wrested  control  of  the  Delaware  from  the  Americans. 

Merchant  Marine.  In  early  colonial  times  American  shipbuilders 
and  merchants  became  such  dangerous  commercial  competitors,  from 
the  superiority  of  their  ships  and  the  greater  efficiency  of  their  sailors, 
that  the  British  Government,  by  the  Navigation  Acts,  beginning  in 
1645,  prohibited  importation  into  the  colonies  except  in  English  or 
colonial-built  vessels.  While  the  Navigation  Acts  restricted  trade,  they 
fostered  shipbuilding.  The  merchant  marine  continued  to  thrive  after 
the  Revolution.  Between  1789  and  1797  the  registered  tonnage  in- 
creased 384  per  cent.,  owing  chiefly  to  the  general  state  of  war  in  Eu- 
rope and  the  consequent  increase  in  carrying  trade.  From  1837  to  1847 
the  tonnage  rose  from  810,000  to  1,241,000,  to  2,268,000  in  1857,  and 
culminated  with  2,496,000  tons  in  1861.  The  maximum  tonnage  of  the 
United  States  at  any  one  time  registered  and  enrolled   (or  engaged  in 


442  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

foreign  and  domestic  trade),  and  in  the  fisheries,  was  in  1861,  reaching 
5,539,813  tons.  It  thns  nearly  equaled  the  tonnage  of  the  whole  of  the 
rest  of  the  maritime  world,  excepting  Great  Britain,  whose  tonnage  was 
slightly  greater.  But  since  this  time,  from  various  causes,  the  Amer- 
ican merchant  marine  service  has  declined  until  it  is  now  wholly  insig- 
nificant. This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that,  when  iron  and  steam 
vessels  began  to  be  used,  the  facilities  for  constructing  them  were 
limited,  and  the  navigation  laws  prohibited  merchants  from  taking  ad- 
vantage of  British  superiority  in  construction.  Income  taxes  and  heavy 
taxes  on  gross  receipts,  especially  since  the  Civil  War,  have  greatly 
handicapped  shipowners.  The  coastwise  trade,  too,  has  fallen  largely 
into  the  hands  of  foreigners. 

Meredith,  William  M.  (1799-1873),  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
in  Taylor's  Cabinet  from  1849  to  1850.  He  was  Attorney-General  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1861  to  1867,  and  president  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1873. 

Merrimac,  Collier,  see  appendix,  page  488. 

Merrimac,  Rain,  see  appendix,  page  488. 

Merritt,  Wesley,  major-general  U.  S.  A.,  was  born  in  New  York, 
June  16,  1836,  graduated  at  West  Point,  i860  and  assigned  to  the  dra- 
goons. He  was  promoted  to  1st  lieutenant,  May  13,  1861,  captain, 
April  5,  1862,  and  for  conspicuous  bravery  rose  to  the  rank  of  brevet 
major-general,  March  13,  1865,  and  to  be  a  major-general  of  volunteers, 
April  1,  1865.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  Civil  War 
until  June,  1864,  and  participated  in  the  battles  of  Five  Forks,  Howe's 
Shop,  Yellow  Tavern,  Gettysburg,  etc.  Afterwards  accompanied 
Sheridan  on  cavalry  raid  to  Charlottesville,  and  was  in  the  engagements 
at  Trevilion  Station,  Winchester,  Fisher's  Hill  and  commanded  a  corps 
of  cavalry  at  Appomattox.  After  the  Civil  War  he  conducted  several 
successful  campaigns  against  the  Indians.  In  May,  1898,  he  was  assigned 
to  command  of  the  U.  S.  forces  in  the  Philippines  and  captured  Manila 
August  13,  1898. 

Merry  Mount,  a  settlement  on  Massachusetts  Bay  instituted  by 
Thomas  Morton  and  a  band  of  unruly  followers  shortly  after  the  land- 
ing of  the  Pilgrims  (1625).  In  1628  John  Endicott,  one  of  the  six  paten- 
tees of  the  Bay  colony,  visited  the  Merry  Mount  settlement  and  broke 
it  up  by  force,  "  caused  their  May -pole  to  be  cut  down,  rebuked  them 
tor  their  profaneness,  admonished  them  to  look  there  should  be  better 
talking."     Morton  was  in  England  at  that  time. 

Merryman's  Case,  a  case  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  The 
petitioner  was  arrested  at  his  home  in  Maryland,  in  1861,  for  treason, 
by  order  of  a  major-general  of  the  National  army.     He  was  imprisoned 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  443 

at  Fort  McHenry,  Baltimore.  Chief  Justice  Taney,  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  granted  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  which  the 
officer  in  charge  at  Fort  McHenry  refused  to  execute,  on  the  ground 
that  the  President  had  suspended  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  The  major- 
ity of  the  court  decided  that  no  such  power  was  vested  in  the  President, 
Congress  alone  having  such  privilege  ;  that  a  military  officer  has  no  right 
to  arrest  a  person  not  subject  to  the  rules  and  articles  of  war,  except  in 
the  aid  of  judicial  authority. 

Message,  a  written  communication  to  Congress  by  the  President. 
Regular  messages  are  sent  at  the  opening  of  each  session  of  Congress  ; 
special  messages,  whenever  an  occasion  for  them  arises.  During  the 
administrations  of  Washington  and  John  Adams  the  messages  were 
delivered  orally  by  the  Prsesident  to  the  two  House  assembled  together. 
From  Jefferson's  time  they  have  been  delivered  in  writing  through  the 
President's  private  secretary,  and  being  read  in  both  Houses  of  Congress 
are  then  printed  for  distribution. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  This  denomination  first  assumed 
its  present  name  at  the  conference  held  1784.  Previous  to  that  time  the 
scattered  followers  of  this  belief  had  met  in  societies,  like  those  estab- 
lished in  Great  Britain  by  Rev.  John  Wesley.  At  the  same  conference 
the  church  was  organized  for  missionary  and  pioneer  work  under  charge 
of  bishops  sent  to  this  country  by  Mr.  Wesley,  who  was  recognized  as 
the  spiritual  father  of  the  denomination.  Its  success  during  the  next 
few  years  was  remarkable.  The  zeal  and  energy  of  its  preachers  and 
the  work  of  the  lay  members  brought  about  within  sixteen  years  an  in- 
crease of  membership  and  preachers  almost  fourfold.  This  church  was 
the  first  officially  to  acknowledge  the  U.  S.  Constitution,  and  was  very 
active  in  every  anti-slavery  movement.  The  first  session  of  its  general 
conference  was  held  in  1792,  at  which  time  the  membership  was  about 
195,000.  In  1843  tne  Abolitionist  party  in  the  church  withdrew  in  dis- 
satisfaction and  founded  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  connection.  Two 
years  later  the  Southern  Methodists,  dissatisfied  in  their  turn,  separated 
and  formed  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  The  Northern 
church,  however,  maintained  its  power  and  now  has  one  and  a  half 
million  members.  In  literature,  education  and  mission  work  it  has  al- 
ways displayed  great  energy.     In  1890  it  numbered  2,240,000  members. 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  This  body  was  identified 
with  the  main  Methodist  body  until  1845.  The  rules  of  the  church  for- 
bade any  preacher  to  own  slaves,  where  emancipation  was  possible. 
When  in  1844  Bishop  Andrew,  of  Georgia,  came  into  possession  of  slaves 
by  marriage,  the  question  of  slavery  was  brought  to  a  head,  and  an  ar- 


444  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

rangement  was  made  for  an  amicable  separation  into  two  bodies,  the 
Southern  having  about  half  a  million  members.  Difficulties  arose  as  to 
details,  and  the  Northern  body  ceased  to  recognize  the  Southern.  The 
war  greatly  hindered  the  progress  of  the  new  church,  but  since  that 
time  it  has  made  rapid  progress,  and  has  greatly  aided  in  missionary 
work  in  the  border  States  and  destitute  parts  of  the  South.  Number  of 
members  in  1890,  1,210,000. 

Methodist  Protestant  Church  is  the  name  assumed  by  a  body 
that  seceded  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1830.  The  sect 
differs  from  its  parent  church  mainly  in  ecclesiastical  government. 
They  abolish  the  episcopal  office  and  admit  the  laity  to  an  equal  parti- 
cipation with  the  clergy  in  administration  and  government.  The  slavery 
questions  divided  this  denomination,  and  both  wings  are  growing 
slowly,  but  now  are  practically  one  in  work  and  aims.  Number  of 
members  in  1890,  142,000. 

Metric  System.  This  system  was  legalized  by  Act  of  Congress  in 
July,  1866  ;  and  in  1873  and  1876  appropriations  were  made  for  procur- 
ing metric  standards  for  the  States  and  for  the  construction  and  verifi- 
cation of  standard  weights  and  measures  for  the  custom  house  and  the 
several  States,  but  it  is  not  yet  generally  used. 

Mexican  War,  April,  1846,  to  September,  1847.  The  cause  of  the 
war  was  the  revolt  of  Texas  from  Mexico  and  the  subsequent  annexa- 
tion of  that  State  to  the  Union  in  1845.  Not  only  had  Texas  revolted, 
but  she  claimed  and  carried  into  the  Union  with  her  a  far  more  extended 
territory  than  had  been  conveyed  in  the  original  Mexican  arrangements. 
In  November  of  1845  President  Polk  sent  Slidell,  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  the  South,  to  Mexico  to  treat  with  President  Herrera  con- 
cerning some  indemnity  for  Texas  and  also  to  negotiate  for  California. 
Slidell  was  not  received,  for  Paredes,  the  soldier,  had  succeeded  Her- 
rera. Polk  at  once  ordered  General  Zachary  Taylor,  then  commanding 
the  army,  to  advance  through  the  disputed  territory  and  take  a  position 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  River.  Here,  near  Matamoras, 
April  23,  1846,  he  was  attacked  by  the  Mexicans  under  Arista,  and  a 
portion  of  his  forces  were  captured.  While  Taylor  struck  Mexico  Gen- 
eral Kearney  marched  into  New  Mexico,  conquered  the  whole  country, 
raised  the  United  States  flag,  and,  sending  Doniphan  to  join  Wool  at 
Chihuahua,  he  proceeded  to  California,  which  was  speedily  conquered, 
chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Lieutenant  Fremont.  Scott  now  assumed 
command  of  the  army  in  Mexico,  but  Taylor  continued  to  command  in 
the  North.     Taylor  fortified  himself  at  Corpus  Christi  for  a  time  in  the 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  445 

defense  of  Texas,  but  later  advanced  into  the  heart  of  Mexico,  leaving 
a  garrison  at  Fort  Brown  opposite  Matamoras.  This  place  was  after- 
ward bravely  defended  by  Major  Brown.  The  battle  of  Palo  Alto  was 
the  first  great  battle  of  the  war,  occurring  May  8,  1846.  The  Mexicans 
under  Ampudia  and  Arista  were  defeated.  Then  followed  in  quick  suc- 
cession the  battles  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Buena  Vista  and  a  number  of 
lesser  fights,  all  disastrous  to  the  Mexican  cause.  Thus  Taylor  pene- 
trated into  northern  Mexico.  Then  Scott  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  and 
marched  on  the  Mexican  capital.  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican  general, 
was  badly  defeated  at  the  battles  of  Cerro  Gordo,  Contreras  and  Churu- 
busco.  Finally,  General  Scott,  after  a  series  of  brilliant  victories, 
marched  on  the  city  of  Mexico,  arriving  in  August,  1847.  After  detailed 
operations  of  siege  and  bombardment,  which  terminated  in  the  Mexican 
defeat  at  Molino  del  Rey,  September  7  and  8,  and  a  final  scathing  bom- 
bardment, the  capital  surrendered  September  14,  thus  terminating  the 
war.  The  war  was  plainly  one  of  unjust  aggression  on  a  minor  power, 
with  the  object  of  winning  more  territory  for  new  slave  States. 

Mexico.  The  independence  of  Mexico  was  recognized  by  the 
United  States  in  March,  1822.  A  treaty  of  limits  was  signed  in  1828, 
with  additional  articles  in  1831  and  1835  and  a  commercial  treaty  in 
1831.  The  war  of  1846  was  caused  by  Mexico's  resentment  over  the 
annexation  of  Texas  by  the  United  States.  After  a  succession  of  vic- 
tories the  United  States  obtained  in  February,  1848,  the  treaty  of 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  by  which  Mexico  ceded  California,  Utah,  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  to  the  United  States  in  consideration  of  a  payment  of 
$15,000,000  by  the  United  States  and  the  assumption  of  $3,000,000  of 
unsettled  claims  against  Mexico  which  were  paid  by  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment in  1851.  By  the  Gadsden  Treaty  of  1853  a  half-million  of  square 
miles  of  territory  were  added  to  the  United  States,  and  rights  of  transit 
over  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  In  1861  an  extradition  treaty  was 
concluded,  and  in  1868  a  naturalization  convention  and  a  convention 
for  the  establishment  of  a  claims  commission.  Claims  against  Mexico 
were  finally  allowed  to  the  amount  of  about  $4,000,000,  and  against  the 
United  States  to  the  amount  of  about  $150,000.  A  reciprocity  convention 
was  concluded  in  1883,  but  is  not  in  operation  owing  to  a  failure  of  the 
necessary  legislation.  The  boundary  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  was  fixed  by  the  Convention  of  1884. 

Mexico,  City  of.  By  the  fights  of  Contreras,  Churubusco,  Molino 
del  Rey  and  Chapultepec  Scott's  forces  approached  closer  and  closer  to 
the  capital.  As  a  sequel  of  the  last-named  fight,  he  was  in  possession 
of  two  of  the  gates  on  the  evening  of  September  13,  1847.    Next  morn- 


446  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ing,  the  officials  of  the  republic  having  fled,  the  authorities  of  the  city 
surrendered  unconditionally.  Scott  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  the 
city,  unopposed  by  any  organized  resistance. 

Miantonomo,  sachem  of  the  Narragansett  Indians,  died  in  1643. 
He  concluded  an  alliance  with  Massachusetts  in  1636  and  aided  in  the 
Pequot  War.  He  deeded  the  present  site  of  Providence  to  Roger 
Williams. 

Michigan,  a  State  of  the  American  Union,  was  formed  from  the 
Northwest  Territory.  It  was  first  explored  and  settled  by  the  French. 
Marquette  in  1668  established  a  mission  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  In  1701 
Detroit  was  founded.  In  1763  the  French  surrendered  their  claims  to 
the  English,  who  in  1783  surrendered  it  to  the  United  States,  although 
actual  possession  was  not  given  until  1796.  In  1787  Michigan  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Northwest  Territory,  which  was  organized  by  the  ordi- 
nance of  that  year.  In  1805  it  was  created  a  separate  territory.  During 
the  War  of  1812  the  inhabitants  suffered  from  the  English.  A  bound- 
ary dispute  with  Ohio  was  settled  in  favor  of  that  State  by  the  Act  of 
Congress  of  1836,  which  provided  for  the  admission  of  Michigan.  The 
inhabitants  accepted  the  conditions,  and  Michigan  became  a  State 
January  26,  1837.  Except  in  the  year  1840  the  State  was  Democratic 
until  1856,  since  which  time  it  has  been  Republican  in  Presidential 
elections.  The  "  Maine  L,iquor  Law  "  was  passed  in  1855  and  repealed 
in  1875.  In  1840  Michigan  had  a  population  of  212,267,  i*1  J^9°  2>°93>889. 
The  present  Constitution  was  made  in  1850. 

Michigan,  University  of,  Ann  Arbor.  Its  founding  is  due  to 
grants  of  land  made  by  Congress.  First  opened  to  students  1842.  It 
was  the  first  State  university  to  attain  high  distinction.  Its  school  of 
medicine  was  established  in  1850,  its  law  school  in  1859,  its  school  of 
homeopathy  in  1875. 

Middlebrook,  New  Jersey.  It  was  at  this  place  the  American 
army  went  into  winter  quarters  1778-9,  and  suffered  great  hardships. 
The  soldiers  were  neither  paid  nor  fed,  and  but  for  General  Washing- 
ton's personal  influence  the  army  would  have  mutinied. 

Middleton,  Arthur  (1742-1787),  aided  in  framing  the  South  Caro- 
lina Constitution  in  1776.  He  represented  South  Carolina  in  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  from  1776  to  1778,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  served  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1781  to  1783.  He  was  author 
of  several  influential  political  essays  signed  "  Andrew  Marvell." 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  447 

Midnight  Appointments,  official  appointments  of  sixteen  circuit 
judges  and  other  inferior  officers  made  by  John  Adams  during  the  last 
three  weeks  of  his  Presidential  term,  many  of  the  papers  being  signed 
just  before  midnight  of  March  3,  1801.  These  appointments  were 
made  in  a  spirit  of  pique  at  Jefferson's  success,  and  the  officers  chosen 
were  in  every  instance  Federalists,  bitterly  opposed  to  Jefferson's 
principles. 

Mifflin,  Thomas  (1744-1800),  had  served  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Legislature  before  he  entered  the  first  Continental  Congress.  In  the 
war  he  was  at  first  aide-de-camp  to  Washington,  and  then  quarter- 
master-general. He  covered  the  retreat  of  the  army  in  the  evacuation 
of  Brooklyn  in  1776,  and  soon  afterward  was  appointed  major-general 
and  a  member  of  the  Board  of  War.  With  Conway  and  Gates  he  was 
associated  in  the  intrigues  against  Washington,  and  in  1778  he  was 
retired  from  the  office  of  quartermaster-general.  He  was  president  of 
Congress  in  1783,  member  of  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787,  and  a 
signer  of  the  Constitution.  He  was  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  from 
1790  to  1799. 

Mifflin,  Fort.  Fort  Mifflin,  on  an  island  in  the  Delaware  and,  with 
Fort  Mercer,  commanding  the  stream,  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
the  latter  part  of  November,  1777. 

Milan  Decree,  a  decree  issued  by  Napoleon  December  7,  1807,  in 
which  he  declared  to  be  "  denationalized,"  whether  found  in  Continen- 
tal ports  or  on  the  high  seas,  any  vessel  which  should  submit  to  search 
by  a  British  vessel,  or  should  touch  or  set  sail  for  or  from  Great  Britain 
or  her  colonies.  This  was  in  retort  to  the  British  Orders-in-Council  of 
November  11,  1807,  which  declared,  among  their  provisions,  any  vessel 
and  cargo  good  prize  if  it  carried  a  French  consular  certificate  of  the 
origin  of  the  cargo. 

Mileage.  The  First  Congress  provided  that  each  member  should 
receive,  beside  his  pay,  six  dollars  for  each  twenty  miles  traveled  in 
going  and  returning.  In  1818  this  was  raised  to  eight  dollars.  An  act 
of  1856  limited  this  to  two  sessions.  In  1866,  the  railroad  having  long 
since  come  in,  the  mileage  was  reduced  to  twenty  cents  a  mile. 

Miles,  Nelson  A.,  born  in  1839,  distinguished  himself  at  Fair  Oaks 
and  Malvern,  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania 
and  Fredericksburg.  He  was  afterwards  successful  in  the  Western  In- 
dian campaigns,  for  which  he  was  promoted  in  1890  to  be  major-gen- 
eral, and  in  September,  1895,  commander-in-chief  of  U.  S.  army.     He 


448  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

personally  commanded  the  Porto  Rican  expedition,  1898.  His  criti- 
cisms of  the  conduct  of  the  Spanish- American  War,  although  not  borne 
out  by  the  commissions  investigating  them,  received  much  popular 
support. 

Military  Academy.  This  academy  was  established  at  West  Point,  in 
New  York  State,  in  1802,  and  is  connected  with  and  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  National  War  Department.  At  first  provision  was  made 
for  only  ten  cadets,  but  in  181 2  Congress  authorized  provision  for  250. 
The  present  corps  of  cadets  consists  of  one  from  each  Congressional  dis- 
trict, one  from  each  territory,  one  from  the  District  of  Columbia  and  ten 
from  the  United  States  at  large.  Most  of  the  leading  generals  of  the 
Civil  War,  on  both  sides,  were  graduates  of  West  Point. 

Militia.  The  Constitution  empowers  Congress  to  • (  provide  for  call- 
ing forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insur- 
rections and  repel  invasions."  In  1792  an  act  was  passed  "  to  provide 
for  the  national  defense  by  establishing  a  uniform  militia  throughout 
the  United  States, ' '  by  the  enrollment  of  ' '  every  free  able-bodied  white 
male  citizen,''  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five.  The  Act  of 
March  2,  1867,  permitted  the  enrolling  of  negroes.  In  1862  the  length 
of  time  for  which  the  militia  might  be  called  out  was  fixed  at  nine 
months.  The  militia  has  been  called  out  three  times  :  in  1794,  at  the 
time  of  the  Whiskey  Insurrection  in  Pennsylvania,  during  the  War  of 
1812,  and  in  1861  during  the  Civil  War. 

Mill  at  Newport,  an  ancient  stone  structure  at  Newport,  R.  I. 
When  and  by  whom  it  was  constructed  is  still  a  disputed  question. 
Former  antiquarians  have  proclaimed  it  the  work  of  Northmen  of  the 
eleventh  century.  But  more  recent  investigations  have  quite  satisfac- 
torily proved  it  to  have  been  a  windmill  erected  by  Governor  Arnold,  of 
Rhode  Island,  some  time  between  1670  and  1680.  The  design  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  a  mill  in  Chesterton,  England. 

Mill  Springs,  or  Fishing  Creek,  Ky.  Here  General  Critten- 
den, commanding  5,000  Confederates,  was  defeated  by  General  Thomas 
and  a  Union  army  of  8,000,  January  19,  1862.  Crittenden  planned  a 
night  attack,  which  miscarried,  owing  to  Thomas'  strong  position.  The 
Confederates  made  a  desperate  charge,  but  were  repulsed  by  an  Ohio 
regiment  and  took  refuge  in  an  intrenched  camp.  General  Zollicoffer, 
Confederate,  was  killed. 

Mill-boy  of  the  Slashes,  a  designation  applied  to  Henry  Clay,  who 
was  born  in  humble  circumstances  in  the  portion  of  Hanover  County, 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  449 

Virginia,  known  as  the  "Slashes,"  and,  like  other  farm-boys,  used  to 
ride  to  mill. 

Miller,  James  (1776-1851),  entered  the  army  as  major  in  1810.  He 
commanded  atBrownstown  in  1812,  and  fought  at  Fort  George,  Chippe- 
wa and  Lundy 's  Lane.     He  was  Governor  of  Arkansas  from  1819  to  1825. 

Miller,  William  (1782-1849),  born  in  Massachusetts,  served  on  the 
Canadian  frontier  in  1812.  He  proclaimed  that  the  coming  of  Christ 
would  occur  in  1843,  and  founded  the  sect  of  ' '  Millerites, "  or  "  Advent- 
ists." 

Miller,  William  H.  H.,  born  in  1841,  became  a  law-partner  with 
General  B.  Harrison  in  1874.  He  was  Attorney-General  in  Harrison's 
Cabinet  from  1889  to  1893. 

Milligan'S  Case,  a  case  decided  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1866. 
This  case  involved  the  right  of  a  citizen  to  demand  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
under  particular  circumstances.  In  October,  1864,  during  the  Civil  War, 
Milligan  was  brought  before  a  military  commission  convened  at  Indi- 
anapolis by  General  Hovey.  He  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  death  for 
participation  in  rebellious  schemes.  By  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  of  Con- 
gress, 1863,  lists  were  to  be  furnished  in  each  State  of  persons  suspected 
of  violating  national  laws.  But  any  such  persons,  arrested  and  no  in- 
dictment found  against  them  by  the  Circuit  Court,  should  be  freed  on 
petition  verified  by  oath.  Milligan  was  not  indicted  by  the  Circuit 
Court.  He  objected  to  the  authority  of  the  military  commission  and 
sued  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  the  Circuit  Court.  There  was  a 
division  of  opinion  and  the  case  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  in  1866. 
That  body  decided  that  the  writ  should  be  issued  and  the  prisoner  dis- 
charged. Regarding  the  military  commission,  it  was  maintained  that 
such  power  of  erecting  military  jurisdictions  remote  from  the  seat  of 
war  was  not  vested  in  Congress,  and  that  it  could  not  be  exercised  in 
this  particular  case  ;  that  the  prisoner,  a  civilian,  was  exempt  from  the 
laws  of  war  and  could  only  be  tried  by  a  jury  ;  and  finally,  that  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  could  not  be  suspended  constitutionally,  though 
the  privilege  of  that  writ  might  be. 

Milliken'S  Bend,  I,a.  In  this  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  a 
colored  regiment  which  lay  in  intrenchments  commanded  by  the  Union 
General  Dennis,  was  destroyed,  June  6  and  7,  1863,  by  2,500  Confeder- 
ates led  by  Henry  McCulloch. 

Mills,  Robert  (1781-1855),  of  South  Carolina,  was  architect  of  the 
Vol.  V— 29 


450  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

General  Post-Office,  Treasury  and  Patent-Office  buildings  at  Washing- 
ton.    He  made  the  original  design  of  the  Washington  Monument. 

Mills,  Roger  Q.y  born  in  1832,  was  a  member  of  the  Texas  Legisla- 
ture in  1859  and  i860.  He  represented  Texas  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  as 
a  Democrat  from  1873  to  T^92^  when  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate. 
When  chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  from  1887  to  1889, 
he  drafted  the  Mills  bill,  making  marked  reductions  in  the  tariff. 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  dates  its  development  from  1833,  before  which 
time  it  was  known  only  as  an  Indian  trading  post,  occupied  by  Solomon 
Juneau,  who  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  city.  He 
settled  there  in  1818. 

Mims,  Fort,  Ala.,  thirty-five  miles  above  Mobile,  on  the  Alabama 
River.  August  30,  1813,  this  fort,  then  held  by  some  500  men,  women 
and  children,  whites,  half-breeds,  Indians  and  negroes,  and  commanded 
by  two  half-breeds,  Beasley  and  Bailey,  was  attacked  by  800  Creek  war- 
riors, led  by  McQueen  and  Weathersford,  two  half-breeds.  The  fort 
was  completely  taken  by  surprise  and  could  offer  little  resistance. 
Beasley  and  Bailey  and  over  200  others  were  scalped,  but  the  negroes 
were  saved  for  slaves. 

Milling.  The  early  land  grants  to  corporations  and  individuals 
reserved  a  certain  per  cent,  of  all  minerals  which  might  be  discovered 
therein,  to  the  crown.  The  Congress  of  the  Confederation  also  passed 
a  law  to  a  somewhat  similar  effect.  By  an  Act  of  1807  the  President 
was  authorized  to  lease  lands  containing  minerals,  but  this  method  was 
found  ineffectual  because  of  the  immense  number  of  illegal  entries. 
This  was  especially  noticeable  in  the  Iyake  Superior  copper  district. 
The  Acts  of  1846  and  1847  authorized  the  sale  of  mineral  lands  in 
Arkansas,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  and  granted  the 
right  of  pre-emption,  though  not  on  the  same  basis  as  in  the  case  of 
non -mineral  public  lands.  In  1847-48  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cali- 
fornia caused  great  excitement.  Thousands  of  miners  entered  upon  the 
public  lands  and  took  the  Government  so  by  surprise  that  during  twenty 
years  they  remained  in  undisturbed  possession.  Gold  mining  began  in 
Arizona  in  1850,  in  Oregon  in  1852,  in  Colorado  in  1859,  in  Idaho  and 
Montana  in  i860.  The  first  mining  was  the  "gulch  "and  "placer," 
and  these  •  '  placer ' '  miners  adopted  regulations  of  their  own  which 
afterward  were  recognized  by  the  Government  as  ruling  the  distribution 
of  claims,  so  long  as  they  did  not  interfere  with  the  Government  re- 
quirements.    A  great  many  laws  have  been  passed  to  govern  the  distri- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  451 

bution  of  mines  and  mining  lands.  This  distribution  is  now  ruled  by 
the  ordinary  common-law  right  to  the  surface  and  all  beneath  it,  plus  a 
certain  addition  and  minus  a  certain  deduction,  the  addition  being  the 
right  of  the  locator  to  follow  veins  of  which  his  land  contains  the  apex, 
downward,  between  the  end  planes  of  his  location,  into  his  neighbor's 
land  ;  and  the  deduction  being  a  similar  right  possessed  by  the  adjoin- 
ing neighbor. 

Mining  District.  In  1849  the  great  rush  for  the  mineral  belts  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  occurred.  In  1866  there 
were  500  organized  districts  in  California,  200  in  Nevada,  100  each  in 
Arizona,  Idaho  and  Oregon.  These  districts  were  created  and  organized 
by  "all  the  freemen  of  the  camp,"  who  elected  officers  and  clothed 
them  with  authority  to  enforce  the  laws  they  ordained.  These  laws 
were,  as  a  rule,  obeyed  in  the  strictest  sense. 

Minisink,  N.  Y.  During  1779  constant  raids  were  made  by  the 
British  and  Indians  along  the  border  settlements  of  New  York.  On  the 
night  of  July  19,  1779,  Brant,  an  Indian  chief,  commanding  a  force  of 
160  miscellaneous  troops,  descended  upon  Minisink,  a  village  in  Ulster 
County.  The  citizens  of  Goshen,  120  strong,  under  Colonel  Hathorn, 
went  in  pursuit.  They  were  completely  cut  to  pieces  and  Minisink  was 
raided,  though  Sullivan's  army  of  2,312  men  was  not  far  away. 

Minnesota,  a  State  of  the  Union,  was  formed  partly  from  the  North- 
west Territory  and  partly  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  In  1678  Duluth 
visited  the  territory,  and  in  1680  Hennepin  discovered  and  named  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  In  1763  France  ceded  the  eastern  part  to  Eng- 
land, by  whom  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1783  ;  the  rest  was 
acquired  in  1803.  Settlements  were  made  near  St.  Paul  by  1830,  and  at 
Stillwater  in  1843.  Minnesota  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1849,  and 
included  the  modern  territory  of  the  Dakotas.  It  had  been  a  part  of 
the  territory  of  Missouri,  and  later  of  Iowa.  May  11,  1858,  Minnesota 
became  a  State.  In  1862  serious  attacks  were  made  by  the  Sioux  In- 
dians. The  State  has  always  been  Republican.  Its  present  Constitu- 
tion was  made  in  1857.  The  population  of  the  State  in  i860  was  172,- 
023  ;  in  1890  it  was  1,301,826. 

Mints.  The  first  U.  S.  mint  was  established  at  Philadelphia  for  the 
purpose  of  national  coinage  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of  April  2,  1792. 
The  machinery  and  first  metal  U9ed  were  imported.  In  1792-93  coppers 
Were  coined,  in  1794  silver  dollars,  and  in  1795  gold  eagles.  Steam 
power  was  introduced  in  1816.     In  1835  branch  mints  were  established 


452  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

at  New  Orleans,  at  Charlotte,  N.  C,  at  Dahlonega,  Ga.,  in  1852  at  San 
Francisco,  in  1864  at  Dallas  City,  Ore.,  and  in  1870  at  Carson  City,  Nev. 
Assay  offices  were  established  at  New  York  in  1854,  a*  Denver,  Colo., 
in  1864,  and  at  Boise  City,  Idaho,  in  1872.  These  were  considered 
branches  of  the  Philadelphia  mint  until  1873,  when  the  coinage  act  of 
that  year  made  them  separate  mints  and  assay  offices.  These  mints 
are  bureaus  of  the  Treasury  Department  and  are  all  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  chief  officer  of  that  department.  The  mints  at  Char- 
lotte and  Dahlonega  were  suspended  in  1861,  that  of  New  Orleans  from 
i860  to  1879,  that  of  Dallas  in  1875,  that  of  Carson  in  1885.  In  1652 
Massachusetts  had  established  a  colonial  mint  at  Boston  for  the  pur- 
pose of  coining  shillings  and  minor  pieces,  but  this  soon  became  in- 
operative. 

Minuit,  or  Minnewit,  Peter  (i58o?-i64i),  born  in  Wesel,  Ger- 
many, was  made  Governor  of  New  Netherlands  by  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  in  1625.  He  purchased  Manhattan  Island  from  the 
Indians,  built  Fort  Amsterdam,  and  held  office  till  1631.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  Swedish  West  India  Company,  he  planted  a  Swedish 
settlement  on  the  Delaware,  and  built  Fort  Christiana  in  1638. 

Minute-men,  members  of  a  military  force  authorized  by  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress  of  Massachusetts  in  1774.     They  were  to  hold  them 
selves  ready  to  take  the  field  at  a  minute's  notice. 

Miranda's  Plot,  a  scheme  devised  by  some  of  the  Federalist 
leaders  of  1798,  notably  King  and  Hamilton,  to  join  Great  Britain  in 
obtaining  possession  of  the  French  and  Spanish  lands  in  America.  On* 
Miranda,  of  Caracas,  undertook  to  secure  the  disaffection  of  the  Span 
ish  provinces.  By  this  joint  enterprise  Great  Britain  was  to  obtain  th* 
West  Indies,  and  the  United  States  Florida  and  Louisiana  east  of  th* 
Mississippi.  The  plot  fell  through  because  President  Adams  refused  U 
favor  it. 

Mischiattfca,  an  elaborate  spectacular  entertainment  given  ti 
General  Howe  by  his  officers  on  his  departure  from  Philadelphia  in 
1778.     It  was  devised  by  Andre\ 

Missions,  Spanish  religious  establishments  conducted  by  Francis- 
can friars  for  the  civilization  and  conversion  of  the  Indians  in  Mexico 
and  California.  The  first  mission  founded  in  California  was  at  San 
Diego,  in  1769  ;  a  second  was  established  at  Monterey  a  few  months 
later.  Before  many  years  had  elapsed  there  was  a  line  of  twenty-one 
prosperous  missions  between  San  Diego  and  Point  Reyes.      In  1834 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  453 

there  were  30,650  Indians  connected  with  the  missions.  The  property 
of  the  missions  was  very  extensive.  Their  decline  began  in  the 
attempt  at  secularization  by  the  Spanish  Government.  The  priests  had 
absolute  control  over  the  Indians,  treating  them  more  like  slaves  than 
free  men,  yet  they  taught  them  much  both  of  religious  and  practical 
matters. 

Mississippi  was  admitted  as  a  State  December  10,  1817.  It  was 
explored  by  De  Soto,  a  Spaniard,  in  1539,  and  by  the  Frenchmen,  Joliet 
and  Marquette,  who  came  down  the  Mississippi  in  1673.  In  1682  La 
Salle  took  formal  possession  of  the  territory  for  the  King  of  France. 
Biloxi  was  settled  by  the  French  under  Iberville  in  1699.  After  the 
Louisiana  bubble  the  colonies  in  Mississippi  grew  slowly.  The  French 
ceded  the  territory  to  England  in  1763,  and  it  was  included  within  the 
State  of  Georgia  until  1798,  when  it  was  organized  as  a  territory  by  the 
U.  S.  Government  under  provisions  like  those  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
with  the  exception  of  the  article  relative  to  slavery.  The  State  has  cast 
its  electoral  votes  for  Democratic  candidates  except  in  the  years  1840, 
1848  and  1872.  In  1842  the  State  repudiated  its  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
$5,000,000.  In  1850  Jefferson  Davis  and  Henry  S.  Foote  were  candidates 
for  U.  S.  Senator,  and  canvassed  the  State  on  the  issue  of  the  advisa- 
bility of  secession.  Davis,  the  leader  of  the  pronounced  Secessionists, 
was  beaten  by  a  small  majority.  An  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed 
by  a  State  Convention  January  7,  1861,  but  was  not  submitted  to  a 
popular  vote.  The  State  furnished  the  President,  Jefferson  Davis,  of 
the  Confederacy.  Mississippi  was  readmitted  February  23,  1870.  In 
1875  the  white  Democracy  resorted  to  intimidation  to  keep  the  blacks 
from  the  polls,  and  succeeded  in  securing  possession  of  the  State,  which 
has  been  Democratic  since  that  date.  The  population  of  the  State  in 
1817  was  75,512  ;  in  1890  it  had  increased  to  1,289,600.  The  present 
Constitution  was  made  in  1891.     History  by  Riley. 

Mississippi  Company.  This  land  company  was  started  in  1769 
by  some  wealthy  and  prominent  Virginians  as  a  rival  to  the  Walpole 
Company,  which,  in  1766,  had  obtained  a  grant  of  500,000  acres  along 
the  Scioto  River. 

Missouri  was  formed  originally  from  the  Louisiana  cession.  The 
country  was  first  settled  by  the  French.  In  1805  the  southern  portion 
of  the  Louisiana  country  was  organized  as  a  territory  under  the  name  of 
Orleans,  and  the  northern  portion  under  that  of  Louisiana.  When 
Louisiana  was  admitted  as  a  State,  in  181 2,  the  northern  portion  was 
called  Missouri  Territory.     In  1817  Missouri  asked  leave  of  Congress  to 


454  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

frame  a  State  Constitution.  This  was  the  cause  of  a  fierce  contest  in 
Congress  over  the  question  of  the  existence  of  slavery  in  Missouri,  which 
was  settled  by  the  famous  compromise  (1820)  of  Henry  Clay.  (See 
Missouri  Compromise. )  This  provided  for  the  admission  of  Missouri 
as  a  slave  State,  but  that  in  future  slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  all 
territory  forming  part  of  the  Louisiana  cession  north  of  360  30'.  Mis- 
souri'adopted  a  State  Constitution  July,  1820,  which  established  slavery 
and  forbade  the  immigration  into  the  State  of  free  negroes.  This 
negro  clause  led  to  another  contest  in  Congress,  and  another  com- 
promise, whereby  Missouri  was  admitted  August  10,  1821.  The  electoral 
vote  of  the  State  was  cast  for  Clay  in  1824,  since  which  time  the  State 
has  been  Democratic  except  during  the  period  from  1862  to  1870,  when 
the  Republicans  were  in  control.  In  1849  the  Democratic  party  in  the 
State  split  into  the  "  hards,"  or  Benton  men,  and  the  "softs,"  or  pro- 
slavery  party.  A  State  Convention  met  in  1861,  which  proved  to  be  of 
Union  sentiment.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  by  the  State 
officers  to  make  an  armed  resistance  to  the  Union,  and  they  were 
forced  to  flee  from  the  State.  The  powers  of  government  were  then 
assumed  by  the  convention,  which,  in  1863,  passed  an  ordinance  of 
gradual  abolution  of  slavery.  In  1864  Lincoln  carried  the  State.  The 
Republicans  divided  in  1870  over  the  disfranchising  clauses  of  the  Con- 
stitution. The  • '  Liberal ' '  Republicans,  headed  by  Carl  Schurz  and 
B.  G.  Brown,  elected  Brown  Governor  of  the  State.  In  1872  the  State 
elected  Greeley  electors,  and  in  1874  the  Republican  party  disappeared. 
Since  then  the  State  has  been  Democratic.  The  population  of  the  State 
in  1821  was  66,586  ;  in  1890,  2,679,184.  The  present  Constitution  of  the 
State  was  made  in  1875. 

Missouri  Compromise,  a  compromise  effected  by  the  Act  of  Con- 
gress of  March  3,  1820,  between  those  who  desired  the  extension  of 
slavery  into  the  regions  beyond  the  Mississippi  and  those  who  desired 
its  restriction.  Missouri  having  applied  for  admission  as  a  State,  Tall- 
madge,  of  New  York,  in  February,  1819,  proposed  an  amendment  which 
would  ultimately  destroy  slavery  in  the  new  State.  The  House  passed 
the  bill  with  this  amendment ;  the  Senate  refused  to  concur.  Next  year 
the  bill,  in  the  same  form,  passed  the  House  again.  The  Senate  voted 
to  admit  Maine,  provided  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  slave  State.  The 
House  rejected  the  proposal.  Thomas,  of  Illinois,  proposed  as  a  com- 
promise the  arrangement  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article.  When 
Missouri's  Constitution  was  laid  before  Congress,  however,  it  appeared 
that  she  had  introduced  clauses  excluding  free  negroes  from  the  State. 
The  House  then  refused  to  admit  Missouri.     Clay  effected  a  further 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  455 

compromise,  whereby  Missouri  agreed  not  to  deprive  of  his  rights  any 
citizen  of  another  State. 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  M.  (1809-1862),  secured  the  establishment  of  the 
observatory  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1843.  He  invented  numerous  astro- 
nomical instruments.  He  made  extensive  observations  of  stars,  nebulae 
and  sunspots.  He  served  in  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  from  1861  to  1862, 
engaging  at  Bowling  Green,  Nashville  and  Bridgeport.  He  commanded 
the  Department  of  the  South  in  1862,  but  died  of  yellow  fever. 

Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  born  in  1822,  a  graceful  and  pleasant  Ameri- 
can author,  has  published  ' '  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor, ' '  "  Dream  Life  ' ' 
and  the  ' '  Edgewood  ' '  books. 

Mobile,  Ala.,  was  founded  as  a  fort  by  Lemoyned' Iberville  in  1711. 
In  1763,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  Mobile  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  but 
was  recovered  for  the  United  States  in  1813,  having  previously  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  in  1780.  In  1 819  it  was  incorporated 
as  a  city.  Mobile  was  besieged  and  bombarded  March  27  to  April  9, 
1865,  by  45,000  Federal  troops  led  by  General  Canby.  Maury  held  the 
city  with  9,000  Confederates.  His  defenses  consisted  of  a  system  of 
irregular  earthworks  called  Spanish  Fort.  This  was  invested  April  4 
by  Smith  and  Granger,  and  was  bombarded  without  much  success.  On 
the  eighth,  however,  300  yards  of  the  Confederate  defenses  were  cap- 
tured, together  with  500  prisoners  and  fifty  guns.  The  works  were  then 
evacuated.  On  the  morning  of  the  ninth  a  general  assault  was  made 
upon  the  city,  and  nearly  all  the  works  were  carried,  3,423  men  and 
forty  guns  being  captured.  Mobile  was  evacuated  two  days  later  and 
surrendered  by  its  mayor  April  12. 

Mobile  Bay,  Ala.,  scene  of  a  naval  engagement  between  the  Fed- 
eral and  Confederate  fleets,  August  5  to  23,  1864.  Farragut  commanded 
the  National  fleet  of  eighteen  vessels,  fourteen  of  these  being  of  wood 
and  four  ironclads,  the  "Tecumseh,"  "Winnebago,"  "Manhattan" 
and  "  Chickasaw."  The  Confederate  Admiral  Buchanan  had  far  fewer 
vessels,  three  gunboats,  the  "  Morgan,"  "  Gaines  "  and  "  Selma  "  and 
the  ram  "Tennessee."  Still  he  was  defended  by  three  strongly  gar- 
risoned forts,  Gaines,  Morgan  and  Powell,  at  the  harbor's  entrance,  and 
the  "Tennessee"  was  deemed  a  host  in  itself.  Farragut  entered  the 
harbor  with  the  gunboat  "  Brooklyn  "  leading  and  the  entire  fleet  firing 
upon  Fort  Morgan,  whence  a  lively  reply  was  begun.  The  "  Tecum- 
seh" immediately  struck  a  torpedo  and  was  sunk.  The  fleet  became 
confused  and  for  some  moments  was  in  great  danger.  But  Farragut 
forged  ahead  with  the  flag-ship  "  Hartford"  and  was  attacked  by  the 


456  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

"Tennessee."  The  other  Federal  vessels  quickly  destroyed  the 
"  Selma  "  and  chased  away  the  "  Morgan  "  and  the  "  Gaines."  The 
*'  Monongahela  "  and  the  "  Lackawanna  "  were  strnck  by  the  "  Ten- 
nessee, ' '  but  the  latter  was  disabled  by  a  broadside  at  close  range  from 
the  "  Hartford."  The  other  boats  closed  around  her.  Her  smokestack 
and  steering  chains  were  gone,  her  crew  panic-stricken  and  she  soon 
became  unmanageable.  She  therefore  surrendered.  The  Confederate 
forts  were  shelled  for  several  days.  Fort  Powell  was  blown  up  and 
abandoned.     Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan  surrendered. 

Modoc  Indians  originally  occupied  lands  on  Klamath  Lake,  Cal. 
They  began  attacks  against  the  whites  as  early  as  1847.  Hostilities  con- 
tinued until  1864,  when  they  ceded  their  lands  and  agreed  to  go  on  a 
reservation  which  was  not  set  apart  until  1871.  In  the  meantime  they 
were  placed  on  the  Klamath  reservation,  and  later  on  the  Yainax  reser- 
vation. A  band  under  Captain  Jack  left  the  reservation  and  settled  on 
Lost  River,  whence  they  refused  to  depart  (1872).  Hostilities  followed, 
Captain  Jack  retreated  to  the  Lava  Beds  and  was  not  finally  conquered 
until  June,  1873. 

Modus  Vivendi,  a  temporary  agreement  made  between  countries 
when  appointed  commissioners  fail  to  reach  a  complete  understanding 
upon  a  question  in  dispute.  A  modus  vivendi  agreement  is  never  made 
for  any  specified  time,  but  continues  only  so  long  as  neither  country  to 
the  pending  controversy  makes  a  request  to  review  the  question. 

Mohawks,  or  Agmegue,  one  of  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Iroquois. 
The  English  early  secured  their  friendship,  and  during  the  French  and 
Indian  Wars  they  proved  valuable  allies  of  the  colonists.  In  the  Rev- 
olutionary War  the  tribe  under  Brant  carried  on  hostilities  against  the 
Americans.     In  1784  the  Mohawks  retired  to  Upper  Canada. 

Mohicans,  an  Algonquin  tribe  of  Indians,  early  settled  around  the 
Hudson.  In  1628  they  were  driven  to  the  Connecticut  River  by  the 
Mokawks,  but  a  part  subsequently  returned  to  their  old  home.  Others 
who  had  previously  gone  eastward  became  known  as  the  Pequots.  The 
Mohicans  were  continually  friendly  to  the  English  coloni.sts  during  the 
struggle  with  the  French,  and  also  served  the  Americans  in  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  tribe  finally  became  divided.  Some  were  assigned  a  reserva- 
tion at  Red  Springs,  and  many  became  citizens. 

Molasses  Act,  an  act  passed  by  the  British  Parliament  in  1733  to 
protect  the  molasses  and  sugar  of  the  British  West  Indies.     By  this  act 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  457 

a  heavy  duty  was  laid  on  all  sugar  and  molasses  imported  into  the 
Amercan  colonies  from  the  French  islands. 

Molineaux,  Edward  I,eslie,  born  in  England,  October  12,  1833, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  boyhood  and  educated  in  New  York.  When 
Civil  War  began  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  N.  Y.  Nat. 
Guard,  soon  after  was  colonel  of  the  159th  N.  Y.  Vols.,  and  com- 
manded the  19th  Army  Corps  in  campaigns  against  Port  Hudson,  Red 
River,  Petersburg  and  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  For  gallant  action 
he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general,  and  afterwards  was  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers. 

Molineaux,  Roland  B.,  son  of  the  former,  made  famous  by  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  criminal  trials  in  American  history.  He  was 
charged  with  sending  a  poison  package  to  Katherine  J.  Adams  that 
caused  her  death.  For  this  he  was  placed  on  trial  in  New  York  City, 
November  14,  1899,  and  on  February  10,  1900,  a  verdict  cf  guilty  was 
found  and  on  the  15th  he  was  sentenced  to  death.  The  trial  lasted  for 
three  months  and  cost  New  York  $250,000. 

Molino  del  Rey  (King's  Mill),  Mexico,  a  range  of  massive  stone 
buildings  situated  a  short  distance  from  the  city  of  Mexico.  Here  Gen- 
eral Worth,  September  8,  1847,  defeated  the  Mexican  leaders,  Leon, 
Perez  and  Alvarez.  Scott  sent  Worth  to  attack  this  fortress  by  night, 
but  this  being  found  impracticable,  Worth  drew  up  his  lines  during  the 
night  and  commenced  battle  at  dawn,  Wright  leading  the  storming 
party,  Garland  cutting  off  support  from  Chapultepec,  Mcintosh  facing 
the  Mexican  right  and  Cadwalader  the  center.  The  Mexicans  fought 
bravely,  but  were  overcome  with  much  loss.  Number  engaged  :  Ameri- 
cans, 3,500  ;  Mexicans,  10,000. 

"  Monitor,' '  the  National  revolving  turret  iron-clad  constructed  in 
1862  by  John  Ericsson,  after  a  new  type,  under  contract  with  the  Union 
Government.  She  engaged  in  battle  with  the  enormous  Confederate 
ram  "  Merrimac,"  March  9,  1862,  and,  after  a  fight  of  four  hours,  during 
which  repeated  charges  were  made  by  both  vessels,  the  two  powerful 
adversaries  retired  to  repair  their  respective  damages,  the  engagement 
thus  being  a  drawn  one.  She  was  commanded  by  Captain  Worden.  (See 
Hampton  Roads).  The  "  Monitor  "  foundered  and  was  sunk  in  a  gale 
off  Cape  Hatteras  in  December,  1862. 

Monmouth,  Battle  of,  June  28,  1778.  On  June  18  the  British  evac- 
uated Philadelphia  and  started  for  New  York.  Washington  determined 
to  strike  a  sudden  and  crippling  blow  upon  the  British  army.  He  set 
out  along  a  parallel  road,  and  by  June  27  was  in  a  position  at  Allentown, 
N.  J.,  to  command  the  British  flank.    The  British  then  turned  east. 


453  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Washington's  purpose  was  now  to  crush  the  British  left  wing,  which 
was  moving  in  the  rear.  General  Charles  Lee  was  sent  to  accomplish 
this  maneuver.  He  was  treacherous,  and  instead  of  acting  in  the  offens- 
ive, as  ordered,  he  threw  away  his  advantage,  and  with  6,000  men  began 
a  retreat  without  striking  a  blow.  His  men  were  nearly  exhausted  by 
the  heat,  and  were  falling  into  disorder  when  Washington  suddenly 
appeared.  Word  had  been  sent  him  of  Lee's  strange  action.  Severely 
rebuking  Lee,  Washington  at  once  set  about  restoring  order  among  the 
demoralized  troops.  Owing  to  his  energy  a  disgraceful  flight  was  changed 
into  a  drawn  battle.  The  American  loss  was  362,  that  of  the  British 
416.  Lee  was  court-martialed,  and  Clinton  made  good  his  escape  to 
New  York. 

Monocacy,  Md.  In  this  engagement  of  the  Civil  War,  which  took 
place  July  9,  1864,  during  the  Confederate  advance  upon  Washington, 
the  Union  General  Wallace,  commanding  8,000  men,  was  defeated  by 
Early,  who  led  nearly  19,000  Confederates.  Wallace's  dispositions  for 
battle  were  as  follows  :  Tyler  held  the  Baltimore  pike  on  the  right, 
Ricketts  the  Washington  pike  on  the  left,  and  Wallace  the  center.  The 
Confederates  first  attacked  Brown,  who  was  holding  the  Monocacy 
bridge.  Then,  forcing  a  passage  of  the  river,  they  charged  upon  Rick- 
etts and  Tyler.  These  leaders  defended  themselves  bravely,  though 
nearly  surrounded.  The  battle  continued  all  day,  and  Wallace  retreated 
in  the  evening. 

Monroe,  James  (April  28,  1758— July  4,  1831),  fifth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.  He  entered 
William  and  Mary  College,  but  left  it  in  1776  to  enter  the  army.  He 
was  present  at  Trenton,  Brandywine,  Monmouth,  etc.,  and  in  1782  was 
already  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Assembly.  He  was  soon  a  member 
of  the  State  Council,  and  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress.  In 
the  Ratifying  Convention  of  1788,  he  ardently  upheld  the  Anti-Feder- 
alist side.  As  U.  S.  Senator  1790-1794,  envoy  to  France  1794-1796,  and 
Governor  of  Virginia  1799-1S02,  he  was  naturally  a  Republican  and  an 
exponent  of  Jefferson's  views.  President  Jefferson  sent  him  in  1802  as 
additional  envoy  to  France,  where  he  helped  Livingston  to  negotiate 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803.  Thence  he  was  sent  as  Minister  to 
London,  where  he  remained  until  1807.  He  had  just  commenced  an- 
other term  as  Governor  in  181 1,  when  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
State.  This  office  he  held  until  181 7,  combining  with  it  in  1814-1815 
the  War  portfolio.  As  Republican  candidate  for  President  in  1816,  Mon- 
roe received  183  electoral  votes,  and  in  1820  he  had  almost  no  opposi- 
tion ;  the  eight  years  of  his  administrations  are  in  fact  embalmed  in 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  459 

American  history  as  the  so-called  "era  of  good  feeling."  His  Cabinet 
included  J.  Q.  Adams  in  the  State  Department,  Crawford  Treasury,  Cal- 
houn War,  and  Wirt  Attorney-General.  The  period  is  marked  by  the 
acquisition  of  Florida,  Seminole  War,  Missouri  Compromise,  seaboard 
defense  policy,  the  visit  of  Lafayette,  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (which 
see).     There  is  a  short  life  by  President  D.  C.  Gilman. 

Monroe  Doctrine.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  of  the  first 
Napoleon,  France,  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria  formed  an  alliance  for 
preserving  the  balance  of  power  and  suppressing  revolutions  within  each 
other's  dominions.  The  Spanish  colonies  in  America  having  revolted, 
it  was  rumored  that  this  alliance  contemplated  their  reduction,  although 
the  United  States  recognized  their  independence.  George  Canning,  the 
English  Secretary  of  State,  proposed  that  the  United  States  join  England 
in  the  prevention  of  such  suppression.  After  consulting  with  Jefferson, 
Madison,  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Calhoun,  President  Monroe  embodied 
in  his  annual  message  to  Congress  in  1823  a  clause  which  has  since  be- 
come celebrated  as  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine."  Referring  to  the  proposed 
intervention  of  the  allied  powers  the  message  stated  that  we  ' '  should 
consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion 
of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety  ;  "  and  again, 
11  that  the  American  continents,  by  the  free  and  independent  condition 
which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  European  powers." 
The  doctrine  thus  set  forth  has  been  maintained  by  the  United  States  on 
many  subsequent  occasions,  notably  in  matters  relating  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  and  in  the  case  of  the  French  intervention  in  Mexico  under 
Maximilian.  i  ■  , 

Montana  was  admitted  as  a  State  November  8,  1889.  It  was  organ- 
ized as  a  territory  in  1864.  It  formed  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  cession. 
In  1890  and  1891  a  deadlock  in  the  Legislature  was  caused  by  a  disputed 
election  in  Silver  Bow  County.  Since  its  admission  as  a  State  Montana 
has  been  Republican.    The  population  in  1890  was  132,159. 

Mont  auks,  an  Indian  tribe  which,  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of 
Long  Island  by  whites,  occupied  the  east  end  of  the  island.  In  1659 
they  were  nearly  exterminated  by  the  Block  Island  Indians.  In  1660, 
1662,  1670  and  1687  they  conveyed  their  lands  to  certain  bodies  of 
settlers  at  Easthampton,  reserving  the  right  to  live  on  them  or  parts  of 
them.     They  are  now  nearly  extinct  again. 

Montcalm,  I^ouis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  (1712-1759),  the  ablest 


460  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

French  general  in  America,  was  born  near  Nimes,  and  entered  the  army 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  years.  He  had  experience  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession,  and  in  1756  was  sent  by  the  Government  to  take  command 
in  the  New  World.  The  jealousy  of  the  Canadian  Governor,  Vaudreuil, 
hampered  Montcalm,  but  the  first  years  of  his  command  mark  the 
high-water  point  of  French  success.  In  1756  he  took  Oswego,  and  the 
next  year  besieged  and  received  the  surrender  of  Fort  William  Henry 
at  the  head  of  Lake  George  ;  this  surrender  was  followed  by  a  massacre 
of  the  captives  on  the  part  of  Montcalm's  Indian  allies.  On  July  8, 
1758,  he  repulsed  Abercromby's  overwhelming  force  at  Ticonderoga. 
The  next  year  Wolfe  made  his  formidable  attack  on  Quebec.  For 
weeks  the  French  commander's  skillful  precautions  foiled  the  British. 
On  the  thirteenth  of  September  Wolfe's  army  scaled  the  Heights  of 
Abraham,  and  in  the  defeat  Montcalm  was  mortally  wounded,  and  died 
the  following  day. 

Monte,  this  word,  like  dank,  is  traceable  to  the  public  loans  made 
by  Italian  cities  in  early  centuries,  rather  than  to  the  business  of  bank- 
ing as  it  is  understood  in  later  times.  The  common  Italian  designation 
of  a  public  loan  was  monte,  signifying,  literally,  a  joint  stock  fund. 
The  Germans  were  influential  in  Italy  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the 
term  they  used  for  a  joint  stock  fund  was  banck,  signifying  a  heap,  or 
mound,  which  the  Italians  converted  into  banco,  and  employed  it  to 
designate  an  accumulation  of  either  stock  or  money.  The  word  monte 
still  survives,  however,  in  Italy  to  express  bank,  or  financial  depository, 
as  Monte  Carlo,  meaning  Charles'  Bank. 

Monterey,  Mexico,  scene  of  a  six  days'  battle  and  siege  during  the 
Mexican  War,  September  20-25,  1846.  General  Taylor  commanded  the 
American  army  and  General  Ampudia  held  the  town  with  10,000  Mexi- 
cans. Taylor  began  operations  by  cutting  off  communications  and  at- 
tempting to  storm  the  western  heights,  later  disposing  his  troops  so  as 
to  attack  all  points  at  once.  During  two  days  his  efforts  were  unsuc- 
cessful. Finally  Captain  Backus,  of  the  First  Infantry,  by  firing  into 
Fort  Teneria  from  a  captured  tannery,  won  that  stronghold.  La  Fed- 
eracion  heights,  Forts  Obispado  and  Diablo  and  the  Saltillo  road  were 
captured  in  succession.  In  unsuccessful  attacks  on  Fort  Diablo,  394 
officers  and  men  were  lost.  By  September  23  Taylor  practically  held 
the  town.  On  September  25  Ampudia  was  allowed  to  evacuate,  carry- 
ing one  field  battery  and  his  small  arms.  This  ended  the  campaign  on 
the  Rio  Grande.  Number  engaged  :  Americans,  6,600 ;  Mexicans, 
10,000. 

Monterey,  Pa.     Here,  July  5,  1863,  just  after  the  battle  of  Gettya- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  461 

burg,  while  Lee  was  in  full  retreat  from  that  battle-field,  one  brigade  of 
his  army  was  overtaken  by  Kilpatrick,  commanding  two  National 
brigades.  The  Confederates  were  under  Jones,  and  were  on  board  a 
railroad  train.  The  fight  took  place  about  midday,  and  the  Confeder- 
ates were  defeated.  Kilpatrick  burned  their  train,  captured  their 
guards  and  resumed  his  march. 

Montgomery,  Richard  (1 736-1 775),  came  to  America  as  a  British 
soldier  in  1757.  He  was  engaged  at  Louisbourg  in  1758  and  at  Montreal 
in  1760.  He  retired  from  the  British  army  in  1772.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Provincial  Congress  in  New  York  City  in  1775.  He  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  the  Continental  army.  The  disability  of 
General  Schuyler  placed  him  in  command  of  the  expedition  to  Canada 
in  1775,  and  he  captured  Fort  Chambly,  St.  John's  and  Montreal.  He 
led  the  assault  on  Quebec,  and  was  killed  at  the  first  discharge  of  the 
British  artillery. 

Montgomery,  Ala.,  founded  in  181 7,  became  the  capital  of  the 
State  in  1847.  From  February,  1861,  to  May,  1862,  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  Confederate  Government,  and  was  captured  by  the  Union  troops  in 
1865. 

Monticello,  the  birthplace  and  home  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  near 
Charlottesville,  Va.  The  mansion  was  built  by  Jefferson's  father  in 
I735>  hut  was  remodeled  and  enlarged  in  later  years.  It  is  now  owned 
by  a  New  York  merchant. 

Montmorenci  (July  31,  1759).  In  the  French  and  Indian  War  the 
leading  final  act  was  Wolfe's  expedition.  After  waiting  a  month  before 
Quebec  Wolfe  determined  to  make  an  assault.  The  point  chosen  was 
the  Heights  of  Montmorenci.  He  landed  his  troops  on  the  muddy 
shore  at  low  tide.  They  carried  the  shore  battery,  but  were  over- 
whelmed by  the  fire  from  above.  Under  the  protection  of  a  shower 
they  managed  to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  500  men. 

Montpelier,  the  home  of  James  Madison,  in  Orange  County,  Va. 
It  wras  here  that  Madison  died  in  1833.  The  Montpelier  mansion  was 
erected  by  him  shortly  after  his  return  from  Congress,  though  his 
father  had  owned  the  estate. 

Montreal.  After  the  loss  of  Quebec  in  1759,  the  center  of  the 
French  force  was  Montreal.  Upon  this  the  English  forces  ad- 
vanced from  Quebec  under  Murray,  from  Lake  Champlain  under 
Haviland  and  from  Lake  Ontario  under  Amherst.  The  various  out- 
posts were  driven  in,  and  by  September  6  the  English  with   17,000 


462  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

invested  the  town.  The  French  were  reduced  to  2,200  by  desertion, 
and  Vaudreuil,  feeling  resistance  to  be  useless,  surrendered,  September 
8,  1759.  The  whole  colony  passed  to  the  English ,  and  the  French 
army  and  officers  were  sent  back  to  France.  On  the  twelfth  "of  Novem- 
ber, 1775,  General  Montgomery  captured  the  city  of  Montreal.  It  was 
a  part  of  a  scheme  of  the  Revolutionary  Americans  to  conquer  Canada, 
which  threatened  their  strategic  center,  New  York. 

Moody,  Dwight  layman,  was  born  in  Northfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  5, 
1837.  His  father,  who  was  a  stone  mason,  died  suddenly  when  Dwight 
was  only  four  years  of  age,  leaving  a  family  of  six  children  and  no  other 
property  than  a  little  home  in  Northfield  and  two  acres  of  land.  Young 
Dwight  had  no  advantages,  but  he  was  industrious,  and  at  an  age  when 
other  boys  were  in  school  he  was  working  heroically  to  assist  in  the 
support  of  the  family.  At  seventeen  he  became  a  clerk  in  his  uncle's 
shoe  store  in  Boston,  and  soon  after  joined  the  church,  and  in  i860 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  Christian  effort.  He  had  almost  no 
education,  but  his  powers  of  oratory  were  a  gift,  and  he  used  them  with 
such  excellent  effect  that  he  became  the  greatest  evangelist  America 
has  produced.  He  met  Ira  D.  Sankey,  the  sweet  singer,  in  1870,  and 
the  two  quickly  formed  a  union  for  evangelical  work.  In  1873  they 
made  a  tour  of  England  together,  which  proved  an  unprecedented 
success,  making  thousands  of  converts  and  raising  large  sums  of  money 
for  churches  and  charity  institutions.  He  continued  his  services  with 
ever  growing  influence  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  his  Northfield 
home  December  22,  1899. 

Moorefield,  W.  Va.,  a  sharp  skirmish  August  7,  1864,  between  small 
bodies  of  Confederate  and  Union  troops  under  B.  Johnson  and  Averill 
respectively.  The  Confederates  were  defeated  and  Averill  captured 
500  prisoners. 

Moore's  Creek,  Battle  of,  February  27,  1776.  At  Moore's  Creek, 
N.  C,  Colonel  Caswell,  with  1,000  militia,  defeated  1,600  loyalists,  took 
900  prisoners,  2,000  stand  of  arms  and  ^15,000  in  gold.  This  victory 
was  as  inspiring  in  the  South  as  Lexington  had  been  in  New  England. 

Moquis,  an  Indian  tribe  in  Arizona  on  the  Little  Colorado  and  San 
Juan  Rivers.  They  killed  or  expelled  the  early  missionaries  who  visited 
them,  but  of  late  years  have  been  peaceable.  They  have  suffered  greatly 
from  the  attacks  of  Apaches  and  Navajos. 

Moravian  Brethren.  These  form  an  evangelical  church  which 
flourished  in  Bohemia  before  the  Reformation,  was  stamped  out  about 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  463 

1627  and  revived  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They 
first  settled  in  Georgia  in  1735,  but  soon  moved  to  Pennsylvania. 
They  instituted  a  communism  of  labor  ;  the  lands  were  owned  by  the 
church,  and  its  members  worked  them,  receiving  in  return  the  neces- 
sities of  life.  This  plan  existed  till  1762,  and  greatly  aided  the  church 
is  sending  out  its  itinerant  ministers  and  missionaries.  They  also  for  a 
long  time  excluded  from  their  communities  all  outsiders,  but  this  system 
gradually  died  out  and  has  now  altogether  disappeared.  The  American 
church  still  maintains  its  connection  with  the  parent  churches  in  Europe 
and  is  growing  rapidly,  owing  largely  to  its  active  missionary  spirit. 
Number  of  members  in  1890,  12,000. 

Morey  I,etter,  a  letter  published  in  a  New  York  newspaper  in  1880, 
near  the  end  of  the  Garfield  campaign,  purporting  to  have  been  written 
by  Garfield  to  "  H.  L.  Morey,  Employers'  Union,  Lynn,  Mass."  It 
expressed  sympathy  with  capital  rather  than  labor.  It  was  proved  to 
be  a  forgery. 

Morfontaine,  Treaty  of,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  conven- 
tion negotiated  September  30,  1800,  between  the  United  States  and  the 
French  Republic,  which  had  then  recently  come  under  the  rule  of  the 
first  consul,  Bonaparte.  It  was  negotiated  by  Ellsworth,  Murray  and 
Davie  for  the  United  States,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  France.  It 
provided  for  restoration  of  captured  ships  and  property,  and  more  liberal 
rules  respecting  neutrals,  but  postponed  the  French  spoliation  claims. 

Morgan,  Daniel  (born  about  1736,  died  1802),  was  born  of  Welsh 
parentage  in  New  Jersey.  He  fought  from  the  battle  of  the  Mononga- 
hela  through  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  Pontiac's  War,  and 
settled  as  a  farmer  in  Virginia.  In  the  Revolution  he  led  a  company  of 
Virginian  riflemen  to  Washington's  army  before  Boston.  Joining 
Arnold's  romantic  expedition  to  Canada,  he  showed  great  valor  in  the 
assault  on  Quebec,  where  he  was  captured.  Released,  he  won  distinc- 
tion under  Washington  in  1777,  and  was  sent  with  his  rifle  corps  to  re- 
inforce Gates.  In  the  two  battles  of  Stillwater  Morgan  played  a  leading 
part.  He  resigned  in  1779,  but  rejoined  the  army  in  1780  as  brigadier- 
general.  At  the  opening  of  1781  he  gained  at  Cowpens  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  victories  of  the  war.  Thereupon  he  conducted  a  famous  retreat 
over  the  Catawba,  and  effected  a  junction  with  Greene.  General 
Morgan  was  a  Congressman  from  Virginia  in  1797. 

Morgan,  3$dwin  D.  (1811-1883),  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Senate  from  1850  to  1863.     He  was  chairman  of  the  Republican  National 


464  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

Committee  from  1856  to  1864.  He  was  Governor  of  New  York  from 
1858  to  1862,  and  commanded  the  Department  of  New  York  during  the 
Civil  War.     He  was  a  U.  S.  Senator  from  1863  to  1869. 

Morgan,  John  (1725-1789),  established  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania Medical  School  in  1765,  and  was  physician-in-chief  of  the  Amer- 
ican army  from  1775  to  1777. 

Morgan,  John  H.  (1826-1864),  commanded  a  Confederate  cavalry 
force  from  1862  to  1863.  He  annoyed  the  National  forces  by  successful 
and  destructive  raids  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  during 
one  of  which  he  was  shot. 

Morgan,  John  T.,  born  in  1824,  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in 
the  Confederate  service.  He  has  represented  Alabama  in  the  U.  S. 
Senate  as  a  Democrat  since  1877.    His  present  term  expires  in  1901. 

Morgan,  I^ewis  H.  (1818-1881),  the  "  Father  of  American  Anthro- 
pology," made  extensive  investigations  concerning  the  kinships  of  the 
races.  He  published  ' '  Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of  the 
Human  Family  "  and  "  Ancient  Society." 

Morgan,  William,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  born  about  1775,  proposed  in 
1826  to  expose  the  secrets  of  the  Order  of  Freemasons,  of  which  he  had 
been  a  member.  His  sudden  disappearance  soon  afterward,  and  ap- 
parent abduction  by  the  Masons,  caused  great  excitement.  An  Anti- 
Masonic  party  was  formed  in  most  free  States,  and  William  Wirt  was 
nominated  for  president  in  1831.  Morgan,  it  has  generally  been  believed, 
was  taken  from  Batavia  to  Niagara  and  killed,  his  body  being  sent  over 
the  falls. 

Mormons,  a  sect  mainly  located  in  Utah  and  the  Territories  and 
States  in  its  neighborhood,  to  the  number  of  150,000,  but  having  also 
about  60,000  converts  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States  and  foreign 
countries.  The  sect  was  founded  by  Joseph  Smith,  of  Sharon,  Vt.,  and 
Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  the  first  organized  conference  being  held  June  1,  1830, 
at  Fayette,  N.  Y.  The  distinguishing  features  of  their  belief  are  polyg- 
amy, materialism  and  baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins.  The  Mormons 
first  settled  in  Missouri,  but  were  expelled  thence,  probably  because  of 
their  anti-slavery  sentiments.  In  1839  they  settled  at  Nauvoo,  HI.  In 
1844  an  Illinois  mob  killed  the  leader  Smith.  Emigrating  again,  by 
1848  they  were  settled  at  Salt  L,ake  City.  Brigham  Young,  the  presi- 
dent, was  appointed  Governor  of  Utah  Territory  in  1850  by  President 
Fillmore,  but  he  turned  out  to  be  wholly  in  sympathy  with  the  Mor* 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  465 

mons,  and  resisted  the  Federal  troops  in  1857.  Since  that  time  the 
Government  has  experienced  many  difficulties  in  regulating  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Mormons  and  Christians  in  Salt  Lake  City.  In  1882  the 
Edmunds  Act  disfranchised  polygamists. 

Morocco.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  was  concluded  between 
the  United  States  and  Morocco  in  1787  for  fifty  years.  This  was  re- 
newed in  1836.  In  1865  the  United  States  joined  with  the  European 
powers  in  a  convention  with  Morocco  concerning  the  administration  and 
maintenance  of  the  lighthouse  at  Cape  Spartel  ;  and  similarly  in  1880 
in  a  convention  for  the  establishment  of  the  right  of  protection  in 
Morocco. 

Morrill,  I<ot  M.  (1813-1883),  was  president  of  the  Main  Senate  in 
1856.  He  was  Governor  of  Maine  from  1858  to  1861.  He  represented 
Maine  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  as  a  Republican  from  1861  to  1S76.  He  was 
a  faithful  worker  and  familiar  with  financial,  naval  and  Indian  affairs. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Grant's  Cabinet  from  1876  to 
1877. 

Morrill  Tariff,  so  called  after  its  framer,  Justin  S.  Morrill,  of  Ver- 
mont. This  tariff  became  law  just  before  the  war,  March  2,  1861.  It 
restored  the  protective  rates  of  1846  and  substituted  specific  for  ad-va- 
lorem duties.  The  Tariff  Act  of  1864,  also  under  the  management  of 
Morrill,  was  distinctly  a  war  tariff  used  to  advance  the  protectionist 
notions  of  its  framers.  It  taxed  every  possible  article  indiscriminately 
and  at  the  highest  rates. 

Morris,  Charles  (1784-1856),  Commodore,  served  in  the  war  with 
Tripoli  from  1801  to  1805.  He  was  lieutenant  of  the  "  Constitution  " 
in  the  engagement  with  the  "  Guerriere."  He  was  Chief  of  the  Ord- 
nance Bnreau  from  1851  to  1856. 

Morris,  George  P.  (1802-1864),  journalist,  was  famous  as  a  song- 
writer, composing  "  Woodman,  Spare  That  Tree,"  "  My  Mother's 
Bible  "  and  "  Long  Time  Ago."  Pie  published  "  Prose  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  and  America." 

Morris,  Gouverneur  (1752-1816),  an  American  statesman,  was  half- 
brother  of  Lewis  Morris,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  was  graduated  at  King's  (Columbia)  College  in  1768,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  York.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  New  York 
Provincial  Congress  and  to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  was  an  in- 
fluential adviser  in  financial  matters.     He  was  assistant  to  Robert  Mor- 

Vol.  V.— 30 


466  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

ris  when  the  latter  was  Superintendent  of  Finance  ;  he  attended  the 
Federal  Convention  of  1787  and  revised  the  final  draft  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. After  passing  some  time  in  France,  he  went  as  a  diplomatic  agent 
to  England  in  1791,  and  was  Minister  to  France  1791-1794.  For  some 
years  he  traveled  in  Europe.  Returning  he  was  U.  S.  Senator  1800-1803. 
He  was  a  champion  of  canals,  and  chairman  of  the  canal  commissioners. 
Morris  was  a  noted  writer  of  satires  and  addresses  and  a  prominent 
Federalist. 

Morris,  I<ewis  (1 726-1 798),  was  a  delegate  from  New  York  to  the 
Continental  Congress  from  1775  to  1777.  He  was  a  commissioner  to  the 
YvTestern  Indians  in  1775  to  induce  them  to  join  the  colonists  against 
the  British.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was 
major-general  of  the  New  York  State  Militia. 

Morris,  Robert  (1734-1806),  the  financier  of  the  Revolution,  was 
born  in  Liverpool.  Having  settled  in  Philadelphia  he  built  up  a  flour- 
ishing business  there.  He  opposed  the  Stamp  Act,  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  In  Congress  he  gave  valuable  services 
to  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  and  in  February,  1781,  he  was 
elected  Superintendent  of  Finance.  Among  his  acts  was  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Bank  of  North  America  at  the  end  of  1781.  In  1784  he  re- 
tired, but  served  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature,  as  delegate  to  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1787,  and  U.  S.  Senator  1 789-1 795.  He 
had  previously  declined  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  In  his 
later  years  he  was  unsuccessful  in  business,  and  was  at  one  time  im- 
prisoned for  debt. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.  (1791-1872),  was  engaged  in  painting  in  his 
early  life  and  gained  considerable  prominence  as  an  artist.  He  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  in  a  conversation  with 
Charles  T.  Jackson  in  1832.  He  immediately  applied  himself  to  the 
task,  and  in  1837  exhibited  his  invention.  After  repeated  appeals  Con- 
gress appropriated  130,000  in  1843  for  a  telegraph  line  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore,  which  was  successfully  tested  in  1844.  The  num- 
ber and  character  of  the  honors  he  received  has  seldom  been  equaled. 
His  system  is  almost  universally  employed. 

Morton,  or  Mourt,  George  (1585-1628  ?),  brought  emigrants  and 
supplies  from  England  to  the  Pilgrims  in  1623.  He  edited  in  England 
in  1622  "  Mourt's  Relation  of  the  Beginning  and  Proceeding  of  the 
English  Plantation  at  Plymouth,"  an  important  original  source. 

Morton,  John  (1724-1777),  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Iudepend- 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  467 

ence,  had  previously  been  a  delegate  to  the   Stamp  Act  Congress  of 
1765,  and  Speaker  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly  from  1772  to  1775. 

Morton,  J.  Sterling",  of  Nebraska,  was  born  in  1832.  He  conceived 
the  idea  of  Arbor  Day  for  tree  planting.  He  became  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture in  Cleveland's  Cabinet  in  1893. 

Morton,  I^evi  P.,  born  in  1824,  founded  the  banking  house  of 
Morton,  Rose  &  Co.  in  1S69,  which  was  the  fiscal  agent  of  the  U.  S. 
Government  from  1873  to  1884.  He  represented  New  York  in  the  U.  S. 
Congress  as  a  Republican  from  1878  to  1881.  He  was  Minister  to  France 
from  1 88 1  to  1885  and  was  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  from 
1889  to  1893. 

Morton,  Nathaniel  (1613-1685),  came  to  America  from  England 
in  1623.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  colony  from  1647  to 
16S5.  He  wrote  "  New  England's  Memorial,"  a  carefully  prepared  his- 
tory of  early  colonial  days. 

Morton,  Oliver  Perry  (1823-1877),  was  a  leading  lawyer  in  Indiana, 
a  judge,  and  a  founder  of  the  Republican  party.  As  the  party  candi- 
date for  Governor  he  was  defeated,  but  in  i860  was  elected  Lieutenant- 
Governor.  As  Lane,  the  Governor,  was  chosen  to  the  U.  S.  Senate, 
Morton  became  Governor.  His  term  included  the  Civil  War  period,  and 
his  vigor  in  equipping  and  forwarding  troops  and  suppressing  disaffec- 
tion made  him  foremost  among  the  "  War  Governors."  Since  the  In- 
diana Legislature  in  1863-1865  refused  its  co-operation,  he  declined  to 
summon  it  during  those  years.  Pie  was  re-elected  Governor  in  1864. 
From  1867  to  1877  he  was  U.  S.  Senator,  and  one  of  the  most  energetic 
and  extreme  of  the  Republican  leaders.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Privileges  and  Elections,  and  a  member  of  the  Electoral 
Commission.  He  was  a  prominent  candidate  before  the  National  Con- 
vention in  1876. 

Morton,  Thomas  (i575?-i646),  emigrated  to  Plymouth  from  Eng- 
land in  1622.  He  made  a  settlement  at  Mount  Wollaston  or  "Merry 
Mount"  (now  Braintree),  where  he  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the 
Puritans  by  his  revels.  He  was  twice  seized  and  transported  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  published  "  The  New  England  Canaan  "  in  1632.  For 
this  satire  he  was  imprisoned  on  his  return  in  1643. 

Mosby,  John  S-,  born  in  1833,  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  cavalry 
in  1 86 1,  and  served  under  General  Johnston  in  the  Shenandoah  cam- 
paign. In  1862  he  became  a  scout  and  made  raids  upon  McClellan's 
army.     In  1863  he  led  a  band  of  guerrillas  in  Northern  Virginia,  being 


468  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

successful  at  Chantilly,  Drauesville  and  Warrenton  Junction.     He  was 
consul  at  Hong  Kong  from  1876  to  1882. 

Motley,  John  I,otlirop  (1814-1877),  historian,  studied  at  Harvard 
and  Gottingen,  and  was  secretary  of  the  U.  S.  legation  at  St.  Petersburg 
in  1841.  In  1856  he  published  "  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic," 
which  was  immediately  recognized  as  a  brilliant  and  scholarly  produc- 
tion. During  the  Civil  War  he  zealously  upheld  the  national  cause  in 
Europe.  From  1861  to  1868  he  produced  "  The  History  of  the  United 
Netherlands."  He  was  Minister  to  Austria  from  1861  to  1867,  and  to 
England  from  1869  to  1870.  In  1874  he  published  the  "  Life  of  John  of 
Barneveld."  He  wrote  an  address  entitled  "Historic  Progress  and 
American  Democracy." 

Mott,  X/ucretia  (1 793-1880),  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Friends  in 
Philadelphia  in  1818.  She  adhered  to  the  Hicksite  branch.  She  was 
one  of  the  original  founders  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society.  In 
1840  she  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Convention 
at  Ivondon.  Her  exclusion  from  it  increased  the  woman-suffrage  agita-' 
tion,  in  which  she  became  a  leader. 

Mott,  Valentine  (1785-1865),  of  New  York,  was  one  of  the  most 
successful  surgical  operators  of  his  time.  He  held  professorships  in 
medical  colleges  almost  continuously  from  1809  to  i860. 

Moultrie,  Fort,  Battle  of,  June  28,  1776.  When  the  British  at- 
tempted to  capture  Charleston,  S.  C,  they  found  the  city  defended  by 
a  palmetto  fort  on  Sullivan's  Island,  under  command  of  Colonel  Moul- 
trie. After  a  ten  hours'  engagement  the  fleet  withdrew.  The  American 
loss  had  been  only  thirty-seven,  that  of  the  British,  205,  and  only  one 
of  their  ten  sail  remained  seaworthy.  After  refitting,  Clinton  and  Par- 
ker sailed  to  New  York.  For  more  than  two  years  there  was  no  further 
invasion  of  the  South. 

Moultrie,  William  (1731-1805),  represented  South  Carolina  in 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1775.  He  successfully  defended  Sullivan's 
Island  in  Charleston  Harbor  against  a  British  fleet  in  1776.  The  fort 
there  was  named  in  his  honor.  He  defeated  the  British  at  Beaufort  and 
successfully  defended  Charleston  in  1779.  He  was  Governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1785  and  1794.     He  wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Revolution." 

Moundbuilders,  a  name  given  to  a  prehistoric  race,  the  principal 
remains  of  which  are  extensive  earthworks  found  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  extending  from  the  lakes  southward  to  the  gulf.     Many  of  these 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  469 

are  clearly  defensive  works  or  places  of  sepulture.  Fort  Hill,  Ohio,  has 
a  line  of  circumvallation  about  four  miles  in  extent.  These  defensive 
works  also  include  structures  used  for  religious  purposes.  Many 
mounds  are  of  regular  outline  assuming  the  form  of  various  geometrical 
figures.  In  Newark,  Ohio,  works  of  this  character  cover  an  area  of 
more  than  two  square  miles.  A  mound  near  St.  Louis  is  700  feet  long 
by  500  broad  at  the  base  and  ninety  feet  high.  Some  mounds  of  this 
character  contain  skeletons.  Mounds,  such  as  those  near  Wheeling, 
W.  Va.,  and  Miamisburg,  Ohio,  are  evidently  the  graves  of  distinguished 
personages.  In  Wisconsin  and  Iowa  are  earthworks  which  assume  the 
outline  of  men  and  animals.  One  in  Adams  County,  Ohio,  has  the 
form  of  a  serpent.  It  is  over  1,000  feet  in  length  and  its  mouth  is 
partially  closed  around  an  Qgg  of  perfectly  regular  dimensions.  The 
figure  reaches  a  height  of  about  five  feet.  Various  theories  prevail  as  to 
the  question  what  race  built  the  mounds.  It  is  now  frequently  thought 
to  have  been  a  race  related  to  the  Indians. 

Mount  Crawford,  Va.  At  this  place  4,500  Confederates  under 
Jones  were  defeated  disastrously  by  a  somewhat  stronger  force  of 
Federals  commanded  by  Hunter.  The  fight  took  place  June  5,  1864. 
Jones  was  killed. 

Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  and  College,  South  Hadley,  Mass., 
was  first  chartered  (1836)  as  a  seminary,  but  rechartered  (1888)  as  a  col- 
lege for  the  higher  education  of  women.  The  founder  was  Miss  Mary 
Lyon. 

Mount  Vernon,  the  home  and  burial-place  of  George  Washington, 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Potomac  in  Fairfax  County,  Va.  Mount 
Vernon  mansion  was  built  by  Lawrence  Washington  in  1743,  and  was 
named  in  honor  of  Admiral  Vernon.  In  1858  it  was  purchased  from 
John  A.  Washington  by  the  Ladies'  Mount  Vernon  Association  for 
#200,000,  and  is  now  a  place  of  public  resort. 

Mountain  Meadow  Massacre.  In  the  autumn  of  1857  a  body  of 
thirty-six  Arkansas  and  Missouri  emigrants,  en  route  to  California,  were 
brutally  murdered  at  Mountain  Meadow,  Utah,  by  a  band  of  Indians, 
who  were  incited  thereto  by  Lee,  a  Mormon  fanatic.  It  was  the  period 
of  the  first  troubles  between  the  United  States  Government  and  the  Mor- 
mons. Brigham  Young  had  made  threats  of  turning  the  Indians  loose 
upon  west-bound  emigrants,  but  the  Mormons,  as  a  body,  were  innocent 
of  the  massacre.  The  emigrant  party  was  encamped  at  Mountain  Meadow 
when  the  attack  began,  September  7.     They  threw  up  earthworks  anc| 


470  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

defended  themselves  for  four  days.     Lee,  under  pretense  of  friendship, 
succeeded  in  drawing  them  out  and  murdering  the  whole  party. 

Mugwump,  a  word  of  the  Massachusetts  Indians,  meaning  a  great 
personage  (mugquomp).  After  long  use  in  localities,  and  occasional 
use  in  politics,  it  came  into  prominence  in  1884,  being  then  applied  to 
those  independent  members  of  the  Republican  party,  who  openly  re- 
fused to  vote  for  the  party's  candidate,  Blaine.  Thus  the  name  came  to 
be  applied  to  all  Independent  Republicans. 

Muhlenberg,  John  P.  G,  (1746-1807),  was  a  pastor  at  Woodstock, 
Va.,  from  1772  to  1775.  He  enlisted  in  the  National  army  as  a  colonel 
in  1775.  He  won  distinction  at  Charleston,  Brandy  wine,  Germantown, 
Monmouth,  Stony  Point  and  Yorktown.  He  represented  Pennsylva- 
nia in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1789  to  1791,  1793  to  1795  and  from  1799 
to  1801. 

Mulligan  betters,  letters  which  James  Mulligan,  bookkeeper  for 
Warren  Fisher,  of  Boston,  testified  before  a  Congressional  committee  in 
1876  had  been  written  by  James  G.  Blaine  to  Mr.  Fisher.  The  impor- 
tance of  these  letters  during  the  campaign  of  1884  was  due  to  the  dis- 
cussion as  to  whether  they  were  or  were  not  discreditable  to  Blaine. 
Mulligan  died  1894. 

Mumfordsville,  Ky.,  scene  of  an  encounter  between  Chalmers, 
leading  the  advance  guard  of  Bragg's  army  of  25,000  Confederates,  and 
21,000  Federals  under  Wilder  and  Dunham.  The  Confederates  began 
the  fight  and  were  repulsed  in  their  first  attack.  But  Bragg  gradually 
drew  his  forces  about  Wilder  until  there  was  no  chance  of  escape  for 
that  leader,  who  accordingly  surrendered,  September  17,  1862. 

Munn  vs.  Illinois,  one  of  the  "elevator  cases"  decided  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  In  1872  Munn  and  Scott,  lessees 
of  a  grain  elevator  and  warehouse  in  Chicago,  were  found  guilty  in  the 
Criminal  Court  of  Cook  County,  111.,  of  violating  Article  thirteen  of  the 
State  Constitution  relating  to  the  storage  of  grain.  They  had  neglected 
to  take  out  a  license  and  give  bond,  and  were  charging  rates  higher  than 
prescribed  in  the  above-mentioned  act.  They  were  fined,  and  the  deci- 
sion was  confirmed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois,  whence  the  case 
was  transferred  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  That  body 
confirmed  the  judgment  on  the  ground  that  the  Act  of  the  Illinois 
Legislature  was  not  repugnant  to  the  National  Constitution,  and  that  a 
State  could  lawfully  determine  how  a  man  might  use  his  own  property, 
when  the  good  of  other  citizens  was  involved. 


AMERICAN  HISTORY.  471 

Murcheson  letter,  a  letter  received  in  October,  1888,  by  Lord 
Sackville-West,  British  Minister  at  Washington,  from  one  Charles  Mur- 
cheson, representing  himself  to  be  a  naturalized  citizen  of  English 
birth,  and  asking  the  Minister  how  he  should  vote  in  the  impending 
Presidential  election.  Lord  Sackville  openly  advised,  as  favorable  to 
British  interests,  Cleveland.  This  caused  great  indignation.  Sack- 
ville's  recall  was  requested  and  his  passports  sent  him. 

Murfree,  Maty  N.,  born  in  Tennessee  about  1850,  has  published 
articles  on  Tennessee  life  under  the  pen-name  of  Charles  Egbert  Crad- 
dock.  She  is  author  of  "In  the  Tennessee  Mountains,"  ''Where  the 
Battle  Was  Fought,"  and  "The  Despot  of  Broomsedge  Cove." 

Murfreesboro,  Term,,  was  occupied  by  an  encampment  of  1,400  na- 
tional troops  under  Crittenden  and  Duffield  in  1862.  These  troops  were 
defeated  and  expelled  July  13  by  the  Confederate  cavalryman  Forrest, 
who  came  upon  them  unexpectedly  and  routed  them  after  a  sharp  fight. 
Forrest  captured  a  quantity  of  valuable  stores.  The  second  and  great 
battle  of  Murfreesboro  took  place  December  31,  1862,  and  January  r, 
1863,  Bragg,  with  38,000  Confederates  engaged,  being  opposed  to  43,000 
Federals  led  by  Rosecrans.  Bragg  was  about  to  go  into  winter  quarters 
and  was  not  expecting  an  engagement,  when  suddenly  Rosecrans  moved 
against  him,  forcing  him  to  concentrate  his  troops.  This  he  did,  march- 
ing his  army  between  Rosecrans  and  the  town  and  drawing  it  up  with 
Breckenridge  on  the  right,  Polk  in  the  center  and  Hardee  on  the  left. 
Opposing  these  were  the  Federal  leaders,  Crittenden,  Thomas  and 
McCook.  The  Confederates  were  on  the  west  side  of  Stone  River. 
Rosecrans  had  planned  to  strike  first,  but  Bragg  anticipated  him.  Both 
had  massed  their  forces  on  the  left,  and  on  December  31,  as  Rosecrans' 
left  was  hurriedly  crossing  Stone  River,  Bragg's  left  fell  upon  it  so  fu- 
riously as  completely  to  sweep  away  Johnson's  division  and  rushed  for- 
ward upon  Sheridan,  having  demolished  Davis  in  the  charge.  Sheridan 
held  out  firmly,  raking  the  Confederates  with  his  batteries  and  forcing 
them  back.  He  was  finally  driven  from  his  position,  but  he  saved  the 
day.  Rosecrans  now  massed  his  batteries  on  a  knoll  and  withstood  the 
Confederate  charges  until  night.  Storms  on  January  2  and  3  prevented 
battle,  and  on  the  fourth  Bragg  had  retired  after  slight  skirmishing. 
Again  in  1863,  in  a  seven  days'  irregular  skirmish  and  battle,  June  23-30, 
during  Rosecrans'  campaign  in  Tennessee,  that  general  defeated  and 
drove  the  Confederate,  Bragg,  from  the  intrenchments  he  had  thrown 
up  during  several  months  at  Tullahoma,  near  Murfreesboro,  after  which 
place  the  battle  is  sometimes  called.  Rosecrans  had  60,000  men,  Bragg 
40,000.     Bragg's  army  was  posted  in  a  long  line  from  Murfreesboro, 


472  ENCYCLOPEDIC  DICTIONARY. 

past  Tullahoma  and  along  the  Duck  River.  June  24,  Rosecrans  sent 
McCook  and  Wilder  to  capture  Booker's  Gap  and  Liberty  Gap,  two  im- 
portant mountain  passes.  This  move  was  successful.  Granger  had  in 
the  meantime  dislodged  the  Confederates  from  Guy's  Gap,  capturing 
three  guns  and  a  large  body  of  prisoners.  By  the  twenty-seventh  Rose- 
crans was  prepared  for  a  flank  movement  against  the  Confederates. 
This  was  so  well  planned  and  executed  that  Bragg  vacated  his  intrench- 
ments  and  fled  across  Klk  River  on  the  night  of  the  twenty -ninth. 

Museum,  Philadelphia,  the  earliest  public  establishment  of  this 
sort  in  the  United  States.  It  was  founded  by  Charles  Wilson  Peale  in 
1785,  and  had  as  a  nucleus  a  stuffed  paddle-fish  and  the  bones  of  a  mam- 
moth. 

Myer,  Albert  J.  (1827-1880),  author  of  a  "  Manual  of  Signals  for  the 
U.  S.  Army  and  Navy,"  was  chief  of  the  signal  service  from  1863  to  1864 
and  from  1866  to  1870.  He  inaugurated  the  present  system  of  mete- 
orological observations. 


APPENDIX 


474  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  sou  of  the  diplomat  of  the  same  name, 
was  born  in  Boston,  May  27,  1833.  Possessing  the  advantage  of  fortune 
and  lineage,  he  was  educated  at  Harvard,  from  which  college  he  graduated 
in  1856,  and  upon  him  was  conferred  the  degree  of  1,1,. D.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1858,  but  entered  the  army  in  1861,  serving  through 
the  war,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Brevt.  Brigadier-General.  He  became  in- 
terested in  railroads  when  appointed  member  of  the  board  of  Massachu- 
setts State  Commissioners,  1869,  and  in  1884  was  chosen  President  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railway.  He  is  best  known,  however,  by  his  contributions 
to  literature  and  President  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  He 
has  written  many  papers  on  railways,  also  a  life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams, 
Sr.,  a  biography  of  Richard  A.  Dana,  "  A  College  Fetich,"  etc. 

Allen,  Charles  Herbert,  was  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  April  15,  1848. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College,  1869,  and  entered  the  lumber  business, 
which  he  conducted  with  great  success.  He  served  in  both  branches  of 
the  State  Legislature,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1885-1889.  Nom- 
inated by  the  Republicans  for  governor,  1891,  he  made  an  energetic  can- 
vass, but  was  defeated,  and  returned  to  his  lumber  business  until  1898, 
when,  upon  the  resignation  of  Theodore  Roosevelt  from  the  position, 
Allen  was  appointed  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  He  discharged 
his  duties  with  so  much  satisfaction  during  the  Spanish-American  war, 
that  he  was  appointed  by  President  McKinley  Governor  of  Porto  Rico, 
and  took  his  seat  May  r,  1900. 

American  Jack  is  the  union  of  the  flag,  its  name  originating  with 
the  union  of  the  English  flag  at  the  blending  of  St.  Andrew's  Saltier  with 
St.  George's  Cross  in  1606,  during  the  reign  of  James  the  First.  Its  name 
is  the  abbreviation  of  Jacques,  or  James,  or  Jac,  the  abbreviated  signa- 
ture of  King  James.  It  contains  the  same  number  of  stars  as  there  are 
States. 

Anarchy.  In  its  general  sense  anarchy  is  synonymous  with  lawless- 
ness. Politically  anarchism  means  the  abolition  of  government,  and  the 
constitution  of  society  without  government.  The  law  of  might  would  be 
supreme  under  anarchy. 

Armour,  Philip  Danforth,  born  in  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  May  16, 
1832  ;  received  a  meagre  education  in  the  public  schools,  and  went  to  Cali- 
fornia, where  he  was  a  miner  from  1852-1856,  when  he  went  to  Milwaukee 
and  engaged  in  the  commission  business.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
firm  of  Plankinton,  Armour  &  Co.,  pork  packers,  1863,  an(l  ^ve  years 
later  acquired  an  interest  in  the  grain  commission  firm  of  H.  O.  Armour 
&  Co.,  Chicago,  which  started  a  pork-packing  plant  that  in  1870  became 


ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY.  475 

the  firm  of  Armour  &  Co.  By  1875  this  house  had  advanced  to  the  fore- 
front of  all  the  provision  concerns  of  America,  and  remains  much  the 
largest  dressed-meat  and  pork-packing  establishment  in  the  world.  Mr. 
Armour  is  popularly  reputed  to  have  a  fortune  above  $50,000,000.  He  is 
the  founder  of  the  Armour  Mission  and  the  Armour  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, to  which  he  has  contributed  more  than  $2,500,000. 

Bailey,  Joseph  W.,  member  of  Congress  from  Texas  since  1891,  was 
born  in  Copiah  Co.,  Miss.,  October  6,  1863.  He  began  the  study  of  law 
when  fifteen  years  of  age,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1883,  and  acquired 
almost  immediate  local  fame  as  an  orator.  In  1884  he  was  a  presidential 
elector,  but  the  following  year  he  removed  to  Gainesville,  Texas,  where 
he  has  since  resided.  He  was  a  presidential  elector  at  large  from  Texas, 
1888,  and  in  1891  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat.  In  1898  he  was 
the  caucus  nominee  of  his  party  for  speaker,  and  was  made  Demo- 
cratic leader  in  the  House. 

Barker,  Wharton,  Populist  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  May  1,  1846.  Pie  comes  from  a  distinguished  ancestry 
and  is  highly  related.  Given  many  advantages  in  his  youth,  he  improved 
them  so  well  that  he  rose  to  prominence  and  held  many  responsible  posi- 
tions. His  education  was  received  at  the  Pennsylvania  University,  of 
which  he  is  an  active  trustee,  and  has  been  active  in  politics,  business 
and  literature  for  twenty-five  years.  He  traveled  much  abroad,  and  in 
1876  superintended  the  construction  of  cruisers  for  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment at  the  Cramp  shipyards.  He  also  performed  other  services  for 
Alexander  II.,  who  conferred  upon  him  the  order  of  Stanislaus.  In  1895 
he  became  interested  in  railroad  concessions  and  construction  in  China, 
but  his  ventures  proved  disastrous,  and,  becoming  offended  at  the  money 
power,  he  supported  Bryan  in  1896,  and  soon  after  became  a  Populist.  He 
was  nominated  by  that  pat  ty  for  the  Presidency  at  the  Cincinnati  Conven- 
tion, May  9,  1900. 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic.  This  famous  song,  to  the  tune  of 
John  Brown,  was  written  by  Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe,  in  Washington  City, 
during  the  Civil  War.  It  was  inspired  by  the  narrow  escape  of  the  author 
from  a  band  of  raiders  who  descended  upon  Mrs.  Howe  and  her  party 
while  they  were  witnessing  a  review  near  Washington.  Mrs.  Howe  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  May  27,  1819,  and  is  famous  for  her  advocacy  of 
woman's  rights,  her  stirring  poems,  and  her  leadership  in  many  reform 
movements. 

Beveridge,  Albert  J.,  is  a  native  of  Highland  county,  Ohio,  where 
he  was  born  October  6, 1862.    The  family  removed  to  Illinois  shortly  after 


476  ENCYCLOPEDIC    DICTIONARY. 

the  Civil  War,  where  Albert  grew  up  on  a  farm,  without  any  advantages 
of  schooling  other  than  those  he  made  for  himself  at  night.  When  he 
was  twenty-one  he  entered  college  at  Greencastle,  Indiana,  where  he 
maintained  himself  by  working  during  vacations,  and  by  taking  several 
cash  prizes  in  college  contests.  After  leaving  college  he  went  to  Indian- 
apolis, and  secured  the  place  of  reading  clerk  in  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives. He  next  took  up  the  study  of  law,  and  was  admitted  to  practice 
in  1889  ;  immediately  opened  a  law  office  in  Indianapolis,  where  his  great 
oratorical  ability  soon  secured  for  him  a  large  practice.  He  participated 
in  the  elections,  and  performed  such  signal  services  for  the  Republicans 
that  in  1899  (January  17th)  he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator,  and  in 
the  summer  following  visited  the  Philippine  Islands  to  acquaint  himself 
with  conditions  there. 

Bresci  Gaetano,  born  in  Cosiano,  fifteen  miles  from  Florence,  Italy, 
1869,  came  to  New  York  in  1893,  and  soon  after  settled  at  Paterson,  N.  J., 
where  he  was  engaged  as  a  silk  weaver.  He  joined  an  anarchist  associa- 
tion, by  whom  he  was  ordered  to  return  to  Italy  and  assassinate  King 
Humbert.  In  pursuance  of  this  order,  he  returned  to  Italy  June  4,  1900, 
and  studied  the  king's  movements  with  a  view  to  making  the  purpose  of 
his  visit  to  Italy  a  success.  He  learned  that  a  public  fete  would  be  held 
at  Monza,  a  fashionable  resort,  four  miles  from  Milan,  on  July  29th,  which 
His  Majesty  would  attend,  and  thither  Bresci  repaired,  armed  with  two 
revolvers.  His  opportunity  came  when  he  saw  the  King  riding  towards 
the  royal  villa  where  the  Queen  was  holding  a  reception,  and,  acting  with 
promptness  ran  to  the  carriage  and  discharged  three  bullets  into  the 
body  of  Humbert,  one  passing  through  his  heart,  from  which  His 
Majesty  died  in  less  than  an  hour.  Capital  punishment  having  been 
abolished  in  Italy,  Bresci,  who  was  quickly  seized  after  doing  the  deed, 
was  condemned  to  life  imprisonment,  like  his  compatriot,  L,ucchesi,  who 
assassinated  the  Empress  of  Austria  in  Switzerland. 

Butler,  Matthew  C,  was  born  near  Greenville,  S.  C,  March  8,  1836. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  1856  ;  elected  to  the  Legislature  1859,  and  entered  the 
Confederate  army  as  captain.  He  lost  a  leg  at  the  battle  of  Brandy  Sta- 
tion, June  9,  1863,  and,  being  unable  longer  to  remain  in  the  service,  re- 
turned home.  After  recovering  from  his  hurt  he  was  elected  to  the  Legis- 
lature of  his  State,  1866.  Resuming  the  practice  of  his  profession,  he  con- 
tinued to  be  so  engaged  until  1877,  when  he  was  made  U.  S.  Senator.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  Spanish-American  War  he  offered  his  services, 
which,  being  accepted,  he  was  appointed  by  President  McKinley  Major- 
General  of  Volunteers. 


ENCYCLOPEDIC    DICTIONARY.  477 

Butler,  Marion,  Senator  from  North  Carolina  since  1896,  was  born  in 
Sampson  county,  N.  C,  May  20,  1863.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
N.  C,  1885,  after  which  he  taught  school  three  years  to  support  the  family 
left  in  straitened  circumstances  by  the  death  of  his  father.  He  joined  the 
Farmers'  Alliance,  1888,  and  became  president  of  that  national  associa- 
tion 1894.  He  refused  to  support  Cleveland  in  1892,  and  assisted  in  the 
organization  of  the  Populist  party  in  his  State,  and  was  made  Chairman 
of  the  National  Executive  Committee.  While  strongly  Populistic  in  his 
sentiments,  he  is  a  zealous  supporter  of  Bryan. 

Chaffee,  Adna  Romania,  Major-General  of  U.  S.  Volunteers, 
sent  to  command  the  American  army  in  China,  July,  1900,  was  born 
in  Orwell,  Ohio,  April  14,  1842.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools ; 
entered  the  army,  July,  1861,  as  private  in  6th  Cavalry,  and  was  promoted 
through  the  grades  to  be  first  lieutenant  for  gallantry  at  Gettysburg,  and 
to  Captain  March,  1865,  for  intrepidity  at  Dinwiddie  Court-House.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  elected  to  remain  in  the  army,  and  for  gallantry 
in  an  engagement  with  Comanche  Indians  on  Paint  Tree  Creek,  Texas, 
March  7,  1868,  he  was  made  Major.  He  was  again  promoted,  to  Lieutenant- 
Colonel,  February,  1890,  for  courage  manifested  in  action  against  the  In- 
dians, which  position  he  held  until  May  4,  1898,  when  he  was  promoted 
to  be  Brigadier-General  of  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  served  in  the  Santiago 
campaign  with  such  ability  that  in  July,  1898,  he  was  made  Major-Gen- 
eral  of  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  given  command  of  the  1st  Division,  4th 
Army  Corps.  After  the  close  of  the  Spanish- American  war,  and  the  occu- 
pation of  Cuba  by  the  United  States,  General  Chaffee  was  stationed  in 
Havana,  1899.  When  an  outrage  was  perpetrated  upon  our  minister, 
Conger,  by  China,  by  holding  him,  with  other  foreign  ministers,  as  host- 
age, which  brought  China  and  the  United  States  into  hostility,  General 
Chaffee  was  placed  in  command  of  the  American  army  of  invasion, 
3,000  strong,  and  left  for  the  foreign  field  of  action,  July,  1900. 

China,  Insurrection  of  the  Boxers.  The  forcible  opening  of  treaty 
ports  in  China  (1842),  following  the  opium  war  (1840),  was  the  first  step 
taken  by  foreign  powers  towards  the  ultimate  partitioning  of  that  long- 
lived  empire  of  400,000,000  population.  England  was  first  to  obtain  a 
permanent  foothold,  at  Hong  Kong,  and  later  France,  Germany  and 
Russia  acquired  ports  which  gave  them  spheres  of  influence  which  they 
have  zealously  and  jealously  guarded  and  sought  pretexts  to  extend.  A 
naturally  growing  dislike  of  foreigners  has  long  been  felt  by  the  Chinese, 
which  has  been  intensified  by  the  activity  of  Christian  missionaries,  who 
have  taught  their  doctrines  with  no  little  success,  especially  in  Chinese 
cities.     Interference  with  anciently  established  religious  teachings  is  al- 


478  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

ways  a  dangerous  thing,  and  to  this  peril,  inaugurated  by  missionaries,  is 
the  hatred  engendered  by  the  threatenings  of  dismemberment,  made  by 
European  powers  for  the  purpose  of  territorial  and  trade  exploitation, 
until  the  situation  in  China  came  at  length  to  be  one  of  unbearable  ten- 
sion. There  was  also  a  fierce  contention  of  native  parties  over  the  ques- 
tion of  successorship  to  the  throne,  one  faction  desiring  to  depose  the 
Empress  Dowager,  An,  and  set  up  the  fourteen-year-old  prince,  Kwang 
Su,  who  had  several  times  been  reported  dead,  but  who  in  fact  was  kept 
in  restraint.  These  several  causes  of  foreign  intrigue  and  national  dis- 
temper at  length  brought  about  an  uprising  of  a  red-handed  society 
known  as  Boxers,  who  committed  so  many  depredations  on  foreigners 
that  on  May  21,  1900,  a  joint  note  from  the  Ambassadors  in  Pekin  called 
the  attention  of  the  Chinese  Government  to  the  outrages.  The  authorities 
made  no  attempt  to  suppress  the  Boxers,  but  secretly  encouraged  them, 
until  a  great  part  of  Northern  China  was  soon  in  a  state  of  anarchy — 
murdering  Christians  and  looting  their  property.  So  intense  was  the 
hatred  of  foreigners  that  the  Ambassadors  from  all  European  countries 
were  not  permitted  to  leave  Pekin,  and  their  lives  were  placed  in  immi- 
nent peril.  Vice-Admiral  Seymour,  with  a  force  of  2,000  English  soldiers, 
tried  to  reach  Pekin,  but  he  was  beaten  back  with  much  loss.  On  June 
17th  the  Taku  forts  opened  fire  on  the  foreign  fleets  in  the  harbor,  which 
in  turn  bombarded  and  captured  the  forts,  all  foreign  men-of-war  partici- 
pating except  the  United  States  monitor  Monterey,  Rear-Admiral 
Kempff,  which  abstained  from  any  hostile  act.  On  the  following  day 
Baron  von  Keteler,  Germany's  Ambassador,  was  murdered  in  Pekin,  and 
the  situation  had  grown  critical  in  the  extreme.  To  protect  Americans 
in  China,  3,000  troops  were  drawn  from  the  Philippines  and  the  command 
given  to  Major-General  Chaffee,  and  this  force  was  augmented  from  time 
to  time  later.  Russia,  Germany,  France,  England  and  Japan  also  rushed 
troops  to  China  with  all  possible  expedition,  and  these  became  allies  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  all  foreigners  in  China  and  to  rescue  the  lega- 
tions that  were  known  to  be  besieged  in  Pekin.  Several  times  it  was 
reported  that  all  the  Ambassadors  had  been  murdered,  but  while  these 
rumors  were  proven  false,  the  most  horrible  atrocities  were  committed  by 
the  Boxers  on  Christians,  and  humanity  demanded  that  these  ferocious 
crimes  should  be  punished.  Foreigners  in  all  parts  of  China  were  mas- 
sacred after  being  subjected  to  indescribable  tortures.  On  July  9th  Japa- 
nese troops  captured  the  Tientsin  arsenal,  but  heavy  firing  continued,  and 
in  an  attack  upon  the  city,  July  3d,  in  which  300  United  States  troops 
were  engaged,  Colonel  Liscum,  of  the  9th  United  States  Infantry,  was 
killed.  Insincere  requests  for  mediation  were  made  by  the  Empress 
Dowager,  but  these  failed  to  deceive  the  powers  to  which  they  were 


ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY.  479 

addressed.  The  allies  were  increased  by  the  arrival  of  troops  until  pre- 
paration was  made  to  march  upon  Pekin.  On  Sunday,  August  5th,  a 
force  of  16,000  Americans,  English,  Japanese  and  Russians  became  en- 
gaged with  30,000  Chinese  at  Pei-tsang,  eight  miles  from  Tientsin.  The 
battle  opened  at  3  A.  M.,  and  continued  with  great  spirit  on  both  sides 
until  10.30  A.  M.,  when  the  Chinese  fell  back,  taking  their  guns  with 
them,  and  prepared  to  make  further  resistance.  The  loss  of  the  allies 
was  1,200,  but  this  high  rate  of  casualties  failed  to  check  the  advance  of 
the  allies,  who  continued  to  drive  back  the  largely  superior  force  of 
Chinese  until  the  way  was  opened  to  Pekin,  when  China  sued  for  peace. 

Christian  Science,  a  cult  founded  by  Mary  Baker  G.  Eddy  in  1866, 
the  membership  of  which  had  grown  to  nearly  100,000  in  1900.  Her 
first  work  in  which  the  principles  of  the  new  faith  are  expounded  was 
published  in  1875,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  circulation  has  exceeded 
200,000  copies.  Christian  science  is  established  upon  the  declaration  of 
Jesus  respecting  the  power  which  shall  be  given  to  those  who  in  perfect 
righteousness  do  their  works  in  His  name.  The  theory  that  Christian 
Scientists  set  forth  is  thus  expressed :  "Healing  is  an  essential  of  the 
religion  of  Jesus.  A  true  Christian  Scientist  cannot  help  healing  any  more 
than  a  flower  can  control  the  giving  forth  of  fragrance.  It  is  the  Christ- 
power  that  is  manifest,  and  therefore  God  that  heals."  The  followers  of 
this  faith  do  not  claim  to  cure  every  individual  case,  because  they  are  not 
yet  sufficiently  spiritual,  but  that  their  spirituality  is  progressive,  and  the 
time  is  approaching  when  all  true  followers  will  be  able  to  master  all  dis- 
ease as  Christ  obtained  the  victory  over  death.  They  do  claim,  however, 
that  there  is  no  form  of  human  ailment,  incurable  though  it  may  be  pro- 
nounced by  physicians,  which  is  not  made  to  yield  to  the  prayers  of  the 
true  believer.  In  administering  treatment  the  Christian  Scientist  does 
not  positively  require  the  patient  to  be  a  convert  to  Christian  teachings, 
but  exhorts  to  faith  in  Christ,  and  seeks  to  impress  the  patient  with  the 
conviction  that  all  disease  is  a  mental  condition,  which  may  be  expelled 
by  the  afflicted  person  determining  to  be  well.  In  short,  that  disease 
exists  only  in  our  imagination,  and  that  it  disappears  under  self-convic- 
tion of  this  fact. 

Clemens,  Samuel  I,anghorne  (Mark  Twain),  author  and  lecturer, 
was  born  in  the  village  of  Florida,  Mo.,  November  30,  J 835.  His  youth 
was  spent  in  Hannibal,  Mo.,  where  he  attended  the  public  school  until 
at  the  age  of  13  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer.  Three  years  later  he 
went  on  the  river  to  learn  the  pilot's  trade.  In  1861  he  was  made  private 
secretary  to  his  brother,  and  soon  after  was  appointed  Territorial  Secretary 
of  Nevada.     His  next  engagement  was  city  editor  of  the  Virginia  City 


48o  ENCYCLOPEDIC    DICTIONARY. 

(Nev.)  Enterprise,  where  he  made  his  first  reputation  as  a  humorist.  After 
a  few  years  of  newspaper  work,  and  mining  he  began  writing  books  and 
lecturing,  his  first  pronounced  success  being  "  Roughing  It,"  which  was 
followed  by  "Innocents  Abroad,"  and  thereafter  he  wrote  rapidly,  one 
to  two  books  each  year,  and  his  fame  soon  became  worldwide.  He 
founded,  with  C.  L-  Webster,  a  publishing  house  in  New  York  city,  1884, 
which  failed  some  years  later  and  swept  away  his  whole  fortune,  leaving 
him  heavily  involved  besides.  These  debts,  however,  he  honorably  paid 
to  the  last  dollar  by  lecturing  and  writing.  He  has  for  several  years 
pa9t  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Europe,  where  he  is  very  popular. 

Cockran,  William  Boutke,  orator,  Democratic  leader  in  New 
York,  was  born  in  Ireland,  February  28,  1854.  He  came  to  America  in 
1871,  and  taught  school  for  five  years  in  New  York,  studying  law  mean- 
time, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1876.  He  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission appointed  to  revise  the  New  York  State  Constitution,  and  later, 
joining  Tammany  Hall,  was  elected  to  Congress  for  three  terms.  He 
opposed  Bryan  in  1896,  but  returned  to  the  Democratic  party  in  1900. 

Conger,  IJdwin  Httrd,  Minister  to  China,  was  born  in  Knox  county, 
111.,  March  7,  1843.  He  graduated  in  the  class  of  1862  from  the  Lombard 
University,  and  immediately  enlisted  in  the  Union  army  as  a  private,  in 
the  io2d  Illinois  Volunteers.  He  served  to  the  end  of  the  war,  rising  to 
the  rank  of  Captain,  and  was  made  Brevet-Major  for  gallant  conduct  in 
the  field.  He  began  a  study  of  the  law,  and  graduated  from  the  Albany 
Law  School,  1866,  entering  upon  practice  in  1868  at  Galesburg,  111.  He 
removed  to  Iowa,  1870,  and  was  elected  treasurer  of  Dallas  county  1877- 
1879.  In  1880  he  was  elected  State  Treasurer,  and,  serving  two  terms,  was 
chosen  Congressman  three  terms,  but  resigned  during  his  last  term  to 
accept  the  post  of  Minister  to  Brazil  by  appointment  of  President  Harri- 
son. He  was  reappointed  by  President  McKinley,  and  in  1898  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Chinese  Mission  This  responsible  position  he  held  at  the 
time  of  the  Boxer  uprising,  May  21,  1900,  and  with  other  foreign  minis- 
ters was  besieged  in  Pekin  and  often  reported  killed  but  was  rescued  by 
the  allies,  August  15th. 

Corrigan,  Michael  Augustine,  Archbishop,  was  born  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  August  13,  1839  ;  educated  at  St.  Mary's  College,  Wilmington,  Del. 
He  is  also  a  graduate  of  Mount  St.  Mary's,  Bmmitsburg,  Md.  (1859),  an^ 
from  the  American  College  of  Rome  he  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
(1864).  He  was  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology  and  Sacred  Scripture, 
1864-1868;  President  of  Seton  Hall  College,  Orange,  N.  J.,  1868-1873  ; 
Administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Newark,  1870-1873  ;  Bishop  of  Newark, 
1873  ;  Coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  succession,  and  title  of  Archbishop  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY.  481 

Petra,  1880,  to  Cardinal- Archbishop  McCloskey,  of  New  York.     He  haf 
been  Archbishop  of  New  York  since  1885. 

Curry,  J.  I*.  M.,  born  in  Georgia  in  1825.  In  Alabama  Legislature 
for  three  terms,  beginning  1847.  In  35th  and  36th  Congresses.  On  seces- 
sion of  Alabama  was  elected  to  Confederate  Congress.  Served  in  Mexican 
and  Civil  Wars.  From  18S1  to  1885  was  Agent  of  Peabody  Educational 
Fund.  In  1885  was  appointed  Minister  to  Spain,  and  at  the  expiration 
of  his  term  was  again  appointed  Agent  of  Peabody  Fund.  Author  of  sev- 
eral books  and  pamphlets,  notably  "  The  Southern  States  of  the  American 
Union,"  "Constitutional  Government  in  Spain,"  "John  C.  Calhoun." 

Dabney,  R.I/.,  M.  A.,  D.  D.,  1,1,.  D,  (1820-1898),  born  in  Vir- 
ginia, chief  of  Stonewall  Jackson 's  staff  in  Civil  War.  Professor  in  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  Va.,  1853-1883.  In  1883  elected  Professor  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  University  of  Texas.  Author  of  several  books  and 
pamphlets,  notably  "  Life  and  Campaigns  of  Stonewall  Jackson"  and 
"  Defence  of  Virginia." 

Davie,  Wm.  R.  (1 759-1820),  born  in  Egremont,  England.  Came  to 
this  country  in  1763,  graduated  from  Princeton,  N.  J.,  1776.  In  1779 raised 
troop  of  dragoons,  of  which  he  was  lieutenant.  Was  promoted  to  brigade 
major,  and  afterwards  to  Colonel  Commandant  N.  C.  State  Cavalry,  and 
was  in  charge  of  commissary  department  under  General  Greene.  Servec 
several  terms  in  the  Legislature,  was  member  from  N.  C.  to  Constitu- 
tional Convention,  and  was  instrumental  in  founding  the  University  of 
N.  C.  In  1799  was  elected  Governor  of  N.  C,  and  soon  after  was  one 
of  the  embassy  to  the  French  government,  which  got  the  Convention  of 
1800.  Appointed  by  President  Jefferson  to  make  treaty  with  the  Tuscarora 
Indians. 

Davis,  Cushman  K.,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Minnesota,  born  in  Hender- 
son, N.  Y.,  June  16,  1838.  Moved  to  Wisconsin,  1842,  and  settled  in 
Waukesha,  where,  after  graduating  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  1857,  he 
began  the  study  of  law,  and  upon  being  admitted  to  the  bar  entered  upon 
practice  in  Waukesha.  In  1861  he  joined  the  Union  army,  and  served 
until  1864  as  lieutenant  and  assistant  adjutant-general.  Went  to  St.  Paul 
in  1865  and  practiced  law.  Elected  to  State  Legislature  in  1863,  appointed 
United  States  District  Attorney,  and  served  from  1S65-1873.  He  was 
elected  Governor  in  1874,  and  in  1887  was  chosen  United  States  Senator, 
and  again  in  1893,  always  as  a  Republican.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Peace  Commission  to  Paris  in  1898,  Chairman  of  the  Foreign  Relations 
Committee,  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  and  is  author  of  "The  Law  in  Shak» 

•P^-'Vol.  V.-31 


482  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

Detroit.  The  population  is  nearly  200,000,  an  amazing  increase 
during  the  past  thirty  years.  The  city  is  a  great  manufacturing  centre, 
and  has  an  extensive  domestic  commerce.  The  Pullman  car  works,  with 
a  capital  of  $12,000,000,  are  located  here,  as  is  also  one  of  the  seven  pin 
factories  in  America,  besides  immense  ship-yards,  iron  furnaces,  copper- 
smelting  works,  tobacco  manufactories,  saw-mills,  brick-yards,  etc. 
Though  a  great  manufacturing  city,  Detroit  is  no  less  famous  for  spacious 
avenues,  beautiful  parks  and  splendid  buildings.  Many  of  her  avenues 
are  200  feet  wide,  several  of  which  diverge  from  a  large  semi-circular 
park  called  the  Grand  Circus.  Connected  with  the  Grand  Circus  is  the 
Campus  Martius,  a  plaza  600  feet  long  and  250  feet  wide,  upon  which 
faces  one  of  the  four  sides  of  City  Hall,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  struc- 
tures of  the  kind  in  the  West.  On  this  beautiful  plaza  is  also  the  Michi- 
gan soldiers'  aud  sailors'  monument,  a  magnificent  memorial  of  bronze 
and  granite  55  feet  high  and  20  feet  diameter  at  the  base,  surmounted  by 
a  large  bronze  statue  of  an  Indian  girl,  typifying  Michigan  in  defence  of 
the  Union.  Several  other  bronze  figures  adorn  the  monument,  all  of 
which  were  cast  in  Munich.  Detroit  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
prosperous  cities  in  America. 

Donnelly,  Ignatius,  Populist  candidate  for  Vice-President,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  November  3,  1831,  where  he  was  educated,  and  went  to 
Minnesota  in  1857.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics,  and  was  elected 
Lieutenant-Governor  in  1859,  an(l  served  three  terms  in  Congress,  1863- 
1869,  as  a  Republican.  He  became  estranged  from  the  party  on  the  tariff 
and  money  questions,  and  identified  himself  with  the  Populist  party, 
which  was  strong  in  his  State.  At  the  Populist  Convention  held  in  Cin- 
cinnati, May  9,  1900,  he  was  nominated  for  Vice-President  with  Wharton 
Barker.  Mr.  Donnelly  is  equally  well  known  in  literature,  of  which  he  is 
a  distinguished  student,  and  has  written  several  erudite  works,  such  as 
"Atlantis,"  "Rognarok"  and  the  "Antediluvian  World."  He  is  also 
author  of  the  "  Great  Cryptogram,"  by  which  he  sought  to  prove  that  Sir 
Francis  Bacon  was  the  author  of  the  plays  credited  to  Shakespeare. 

Eagle,  American.  To  Audubon,  the  naturalist,  belongs  the  honor 
of  first  naming  the  bald,  or  white-headed  variety,  the  "American  Eagle." 
This  fearless  bird  was  made  the  emblem  of  the  United  States  in  1785, 
directly  after  the  achievement  of  our  independence. 

Expansion,  a  term  used  extensively  in  the  Presidential  campaign  of 
1900,  having  reference  to  the  forcible  acquisition  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
against  the  protests  of  the  natives.  The  Democrats  contended  that  the 
President  (McKinley)  arrogated  to  himself  the  functions  of  an  Emperor 


ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY.  485 

in  waging  war  against  the  Filipinos,  who  demanded  independence  as  the 
price  of  peace.  The  Republicans  met  this  accusation  with  the  declaration 
that  the  use  by  the  President  of  the  military  resources  at  his  disposal 
was  perfectly  compatible  with  the  preservation  of  our  present  form  of 
government,  and  instanced,  in  support  of  their  contention,  the  acquisition 
of  Florida,  and  of  what  was  part  of  Mexico,  and  the  government  first  set 
up  and  exercised  over  the  people  in  those  newly  acquired  territories. 

Frye,  William  Pierce,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Maine,  was  born  in 
Lewiston,  September  2,  183 1.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1850, 
and  immediately  took  up  the  study  of  law.  He  was  elected  to  the  State 
Legislature  in  1861-1867,  Mayor  of  his  native  city,  and  was  Attorney- 
General  of  the  State  from  1867-1869.  He  served  as  Congressman  from 
1S71-1881,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  chosen  United  States  Senator,  which 
position  he  has  continued  to  fill,  his  present  term  expiring  in  1901.  He 
has  been  chairman  of  several  important  committees,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Paris  Commission  that  negotiated  the  Peace  Treaty  with  Spain 
in  December,  1898.  Upon  the  death  of  Vice-President  Hobart  he  was 
chosen  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate. 

Gibbons,  James,  Cardinal,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  July  23,  1834,  but 
went  to  Ireland  with  his  parents  in  1840,  and  remained  there  at  school 
until  1848,  when  he  returned  to  America  and  made  his  home  in  New 
Orleans.  In  1855  he  entered  St  Charles'  College,  Md.,  but  two  years  later 
was  transferred  to  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore.  He  was  ordained  a 
priest  June  30,  186  r,  and  at  once  became  assistant  at  St.  Patrick's,  Balti- 
more ;  after  a  few  months  there  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  St.  Bridget's, 
in  a  suburb  of  Baltimore.  Three  years  later  he  was  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Spalding  and  Chancellor  of  the  Archdiocese,  then  assistant  Chan- 
cellor, second  Plenary  Council  of  American  Roman  Catholics.  His  next 
promotion  was  to  Vicar  Apostolic,  N.  C,  with  rank  and  title  of  bishop 
(1868).  He  was  Coadjutor  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  1877,  and  succeeded 
to  the  See  October  3d  of  that  year,  and  on  June  30,  1886,  he  was  invested 
with  the  princely  insignia  of  Cardinal.  He  is  author  of  several  popular 
works:  "The  Faith  of  our  Fathers,"  "Our  Christian  Heritage,"  "The 
Ambassador  of  Christ,"  etc. 

Government  by  Injunction.  This  form  of  procedure  is  in  effect 
martial  law  administered  by  judges.  It  is  seldom  applied  except  in 
restraint  of  strikers  who  interfere  with  property  or  the  rights  of  em- 
ployees. For  several  years  past  it  has  been  the  custom,  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  where  lawless  acts  are  committed  by  strikers,  for  employers 
to  apply  to  courts  for  wholesale  injunctions  forbidding  interference  with 


484  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

property  and  personal  rights.  These  writs  are  directed  to  all  persons, 
and  violation  of  the  order  by  any  person  is  contempt  of  court,  and  sub- 
jects the  offender  to  imprisonment  without  trial.  It  is  an  extension  of 
an  old  civil  process  that  practically  abolishes  the  safeguards  of  the 
criminal  law.  Government  by  injunction  was  specially  denounced  in 
the  National  Democratic  platform  of  1900. 

Hale,  Eugene,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Maine,  was  born  in  the  town  of 
Turner,  Oxford  County,  Me.,  June  9,  1836.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857.  Soon  after  he  was 
elected  County  Attorney  of  Hancock  County,  and  served  nine  years,  and 
then  three  years  as  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature.  In  1869  ^e  was 
elected  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  and  served  until  1879.  *n  the  mean- 
time he  was  appointed  to  the  cabinet  portfolio  of  Postmaster-General 
by  President  Grant,  and  Secretary  of  the  Navy  by  President  Hayes,  but 
he  declined  both  appointments.  In  i88r  he  was  elected  United  States 
Senator,  and  has  served  continuously  since,  his  present  term  expiring 
in  1901. 

Hanna,  Marcus  Alonfco,  was  born  September  24,  1837,  in  New 
Lisbon,  Columbiana  county,  Ohio.  He  was  educated  at  the  Western  Re- 
serve College,  and  entered  as  a  clerk  in  his  father's  wholesale  grocery 
store  in  1861.  The  following  year  he  succeeded  to  the  management  of 
the  business  upon  his  father's  death,  and  brought  it  to  a  condition  of 
great  prosperity.  In  1864  he  married  the  daughter  of  his  partner,  D.  P. 
Rhodes,  and  upon  the  latter's  retirement  organized  the  firm  of  M.  A. 
Hanna  &  Co.  He  became  interested  in  the  iron  trade,  and  soon  became 
the  head  of  the  Globe  Iron  Works  Co.  and  a  large  ship-owner  on  the 
lakes.  Becoming  active  in  politics,  he  was  made  Chairman  of  the  Re- 
publican National  Committee  in  1896,  and  in  March  following  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  United  States  Senate  by  Governor  Bushnell  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  resignation  of  Hon.  John  Sherman.  He  was 
elected  in  1899  to  the  succeeding  long  and  short  terms,  expiring  1905,  and 
at  the  convention  of  1900  was  reappointed  Chairman  of  the  Republican 
National  Committee. 

Hawaii,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands,  were  discovered  by  Captain  Cook, 
January,  1778.  They  comprise  a  group  of  eight  inhabited  and  four  un- 
inhabited islands,  with  a  total  area  of  6,640  square  miles,  and  have  a 
population  of  about  110,000.  They  were  independent  and  ruled  by 
native  sovereigns  until  the  coup  dyHat  of  January,  1893,  when  Queen 
Lilioukalani  was  deposed  and  a  republic  set  up  with  Sandford  B.  Dole  as 
President.     By  request  of  the  inhabitants  a  treaty  of  annexation  with  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY.  485 

United  States  was  concluded  February  14,  1893,  which  ceded  to  the 
United  States  all  rights  of  sovereignty,  by  which  act  this  nation  assumed 
the  Hawaiian  debt  of  $3,250,000,  regulated  Chinese  immigration  and 
provided  for  the  support  of  royalty.  This  treaty  failed  of  ratification  by 
Senate,  but  another,  of  a  similar  nature,  was  introduced  early  in  1898, 
which  was  ratified  July  7th  following,  and  Sandford  B.  Dole  appointed 
Provisional  President.  The  official  transfer  of  sovereignty  was  accom- 
plished August  12,  1898,  by  delivery  of  a  certified  copy  of  the  resolution 
of  annexation  to  President  Dole,  who  thereupon  yielded  up  to  our  repre- 
sentatives all  authority  and  public  property  of  the  islands.  President 
McKinley  directed  that  the  civil,  judicial  and  military  powers  continue 
until  a  territorial  government  could  be  provided  by  Congress.  This  was 
adopted  early  in  1899  upon  report  and  recommendation  of  the  Com- 
missioners :  Hons.  Shelby  M.  Cullom,  John  T.  Morgan,  Robert  H.  Hitt, 
Sandford  B.  Dole  and  Walter  F.  Frear. 

Imperialism,  a  political  term  that  came  into  use  in  America  during  the 
McKinley-Bryan  presidential  campaign  of  1900.  The  Kansas  City  Demo- 
cratic platform  declared  that  "  to  impose  upon  any  people  a  government 
of  force  is  to  substitute  the  methods  of  Imperialism  for  those  of  a  re- 
public." This  declaration  became  the  party  shibboleth,  and  imperialism 
was  accordingly  made  the  paramount  issue  of  the  campaign.  The  claim 
set  forth  by  the  Democratic  party  was  that  the  United  States  has  no  con- 
stitutional right  to  annex  Porto  Rico  as  a  subject  state  ;  that  annexation 
of  territory  carries  with  it  all  the  rights  of  representation  and  commercial 
reciprocity  without  distinction,  and  that  forcible  conquest  and  annexation 
of  the  Philippine  Islands,  with  the  intent  to  hold  the  natives  as  subject 
peoples,  is  imperialism,  and  opposed  to  the  principle  and  declarations  of 
the  Constitution. 

Individualism.  By  this  term  is  meant  the  theory  of  government 
which  favors  non-interference  of  the  State  in  the  affairs  of  individuals. 
If  such  theory  obtained  as  a  recognized,  or  statutory,  right,  the  State 
could  not  interfere,  especially  by  the  militia  arm,  with  riots  or  other  dis- 
turbances of  the  public  peace. 

Ireland,  John,  Archbishop  of  St.  Paul  since  1888,  was  born  at  Burn 
Church,  Kilkenny  County,  Ireland,  September  11,  1838.  He  came  to 
America  when  a  youth,  and  his  parents  settling  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  he  was 
placed  in  the  Cathedral  school  of  that  city.  Subsequently  he  was  sent  to 
France,  to  the  school  of  Petit  Seminaire,  Meximeux,  where  he  remained 
1 853-1857,  and  after  graduating  there  he  studied  theology  at  the  Grand 
Seminaire,  Hyeres,  France,  from  1857-1861.     He  was  ordained  a  priest 


486  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

December,  1861,  and  was  chaplain  of  a  Minnesota  regiment  during  the 
Civil  War.  He  was  next  appointed  secretary  to  Bishop  Grace,  and  later 
his  coadjutor.  In  1869  he  founded  the  first  total  abstinence  society  in 
Minnesota,  and  was  prominent  in  establishing  Roman  Catholic  colonies 
in  the  Northwest,  and  in  inaugurating  the  Catholic  University  at  Wash- 
ington City.  He  is  a  very  popular  lecturer,  writer  on  timely  topics,  and 
great  impromptu  speaker.  He  is  author  of  "The  Church  and  Modern 
Society." 

Johnston,  Mary,  a  distinguished  Southern  novelist,  was  born  in 
Buchanan,  Va.,  November  21,  1870.  Her  education  was  obtained  chiefly 
at  a  private  school  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  where  she  first  evinced  a  predeliction 
for  literature,  and  was  greatly  encouraged  by  the  praise  bestowed  upon 
her  earliest  poetic  productions,  several  of  which  have  been  published, 
and  all  exhibit  possession  of  marked  talent.  Subsequently  she  began 
writing  stories,  and  her  "Prisoners  of  Hope,"  published  in  1898,  was  so 
enthusiastically  received  and  so  favorably  criticised  that  she  was  immedi- 
ately given  rank  with  the  best  living  novelists.  This  was  followed,  in 
1899,  by  "To  Have  and  to  Hold,"  which  is  the  most  popular  story  writ- 
ten for  half  a  century,  and  is  near  to  being  the  Great  American  Novel 
that  has  so  long  been  looked  for. 

Jones,  James  K.,  was  born  in  Marshall  county,  Miss.,  September  29, 
1839.  He  received  a  classical  education  with  the  intention  of  adopting 
the  law  as  a  profession.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  however,  he 
enlisted  as  a  Confederate  private,  and  was  with  his  regiment  until  disband- 
ment,  1865.  All  of  his  property  having  been  wasted  by  the  war,  he  moved 
to  Arkansas,  and  settled  upon  a  farm,  but  later  took  up  the  study  of  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1873.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  Senate,  and  later  was  a  member  of  the  48th  and  49th  Congresses. 
He  succeeded  Hon.  James  D.  Walker  as  United  States  Senator,  March  18, 
1885,  and  has  been  twice  reelected  since,  his  present  term  expiring  1903 
At  the  Chicago  Convention  he  was  made  Chairman  of  the  Democratic 
National  Committee,  and  conducted  the  presidential  campaign  of  1896 
with  such  satisfaction  that  the  honor  of  National  Committee  Chairman 
was  conferred  upon  him  again  by  the  Democratic  Convention  of  1900. 

Kipling-,  Rudyard,  distinguished  author,  born  in  Bombay,  India, 
December  30,  1865.  He  was  educated  at  the  United  Services  College, 
North  Devon,  England,  and  directly  after  graduating  became  assistant 
editor  of  the  Civil  and  Military  Gazette,  India,  1882-1889.  He  traveled 
extensively  in  China,  Japan,  Africa  and  Australia,  and  on  one  of  his  tours 
met  Miss  Balestier,  of  Battleboro,  Vermont,  whom  he  married,  and  has 


ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY.  487 

since  kept  a  home  in  that  town.  He  is  poet,  novelist  and  essayist,  whose 
works  are  very  numerous  and  so  uniformly  excellent  that  by  general  con- 
sent he  is  regarded  as  the  first  writer  of  the  age.  Early  in  1900,  after 
recovering  from  a  dangerous  illness  in  New  York,  he  went  to  South 
Africa  with  the  British  army,  where  he  remained  for  nearly  one  year, 
contributing  to  the  press  articles  on  the  Boer  war. 

Macon,  Nathaniel  (175 7- 1836),  born  in  North  Carolina  ;  fought  in 
the  Revolutionary  War;  was  elected  to  the  General  Assembly  of  N.  C, 
and  in  1784-5  was  in  the  State  Senate,  and  was  opposed  to  the  adoption 
by  N.  C.  of  the  Federal  Constitution  ;  was  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  from  1791 
to  1815  ;  Speaker  of  the  House  1801-6,  twice  declining  the  office  of  Post- 
master-General, was  in  U.  S.  Senate  from  1815-1828,  being  the  presiding 
officer  during  the  last  three  years.  He  was  called  the  "  Father  of  the 
House,"  his  term  extending  through  thirty-seven  years.  In  1835,  at  the 
State  Constitutional  Convention,  he  opposed  giving  free  negroes  the 
ballot,  favored  a  land  qualification  for  voters,  and  all  religious  tests  as  a 
condition  of  holding  office. 

Mason,  William  Ernest,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Illinois,  was  born  in 
Franklin ville,  N.  Y.,  July  7,  1850,  but  removed  with  his  parents  to  Iowa 
in  1858.  He  received  an  academic  education,  and  taught  school  from 
1866-1870  in  Iowa,  the  last  two  years  in  Des  Moines,  where  in  187 1  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  the  following  year  moved  to  Chicago.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Illinois  General  Assembly  in  1879,  State 
Senator  from  1881-1885,  member  of  Congress  from  1887-1891,  and  United 
States  Senator  in  1897  for  the  term  expiring  in  1903. 

Maury,  Matthew  F.,  born  in  Spottsylvauia  county,  Va.,  January  14, 
1806.  He  joined  the  American  navy  as  midshipman  in  1825,  and  in  1836 
was  gazetted  as  astronomer  to  an  exploring  expedition.  Lamed  by  an 
accident  in  1839,  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Depot  of  Charts 
and  Instruments,  and  brought  this  department  to  great  prominence  by 
converting  it  into  a  naval  observatory  and  hydrographic  office.  During 
cruises  around  the  world  he  made  many  observations  as  to  winds  and 
currents,  and  made  a  long  and  efficient  study  of  ocean  meteorology. 
Through  his  influence  the  first  international  conference  upon  the  sub- 
ject was  held  at  Brussels  in  1853,  and  his  log-books  were  adopted  by  the 
English  Board  of  Trade.  He  published  many  treatises  that  served  to 
make  him  a  world  authority.  In  1861  Maury,  who  had  been  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  commander,  followed  the  lead  of  his  Southern  compatriots, 
and  after  losing  all  his  property  he  retired  to  England,  where  he  was 
presented  with  a  public  testimonial,  and  soon  after  was  made  Imperial 


488  ENCYCLOPEDIC   DICTIONARY. 

Commissioner  of  Emigration  to  Maximilian  of  Mexico,  upon  whose  death 
he  returned  to  Virginia,  where  he  died  February  i,  1873. 

Merrimac,  an  old  collier  ship  that  was  sunk  in  the  bottle-neck  mouth 
of  Santiago  Bay,  Cuba,  on  the  night  of  June  3,  1898,  by  Naval  Constructor 
Richmond  P.  Hobson  and  seven  equally  daring  companions.  The  Spanish 
Admiral,  Cervera,  with  four  of  Spain's  most  powerful  cruisers,  was  chased 
into  Santiago  harbor,  where  they  were  watched  for  nearly  one  month  by 
a  fleet  of  American  cruisers  and  battleships.  The  old  collier  was  brought 
to  the  desired  spot  and  sunk  by  discharging  seven  torpedoes  that  had 
been  placed  along  her  side,  but  she  swung  around  while  sinking,  so  that 
the  wreck  was  not  a  serious  obstruction  to  the  entrance  or  exit  of  vessels. 
Hobson  received  the  world's  applause  for  his  heroic,  though  futile,  act. 

Merrimac,  a  famous  Confederate  ram  that  fought  with  the  Monitor 
the  great  naval  engagement  in  Hampton  Roads,  Sunday  morning,  March 
9,  1862.  Among  the  several  vessels  abandoned  by  the  Federals  when  they 
evacuated  the  Gosport  Navy  Yard,  Norfolk,  was  a  large  steam  frigate 
named  Merrimac,  which  was  scuttled  and  sunk.  This  vessel  was  raised 
by  the  Confederates  and  remodelled  by  them  into  a  ram  after  plans 
devised  by  John  Mercer  Brooke,  inventor  of  the  deep-sea  sounding  appa- 
ratus. She  was  re-named  the  Virginia,  but  she  will  never  cease  to  be  most 
frequently  referred  to  in  history  as  the  Merrimac.  In  the  plan  for  making 
her  serve  the  double  purpose  of  battleship  and  ram  her  original  decks 
were  removed,  and  from  the  strong  hull  a  roof,  composed  chiefly  of  rail- 
road iron,  was  built  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  \,  so  as  to 
resist  and  deflect  the  projectiles  fired  by  the  heaviest  guns  then  in  use. 
From  her  bow,  strongly  fixed,  projected  at  the  water-line  a  powerful  iron 
beak,  capable  of  cutting  down,  by  impact,  any  vessel  then  in  the  Federal 
service.  In  addition  to  her  formidable  construction,  she  had  an  armament 
of  ten  100-pounder  Parrot  guns,  and  was  commanded  by  Captain  Bu- 
chanan, formerly  of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  The  fierce  fight  in  Hampton  Roads 
between  the  Merrimac  and  Monitor,  after  the  former  had  destroyed  the 
wooden  frigates,  Congress  and  Cumberland  (March  8),  proved  to  the 
world  that  new  and  superior  types  of  war  vessels  had  been  created  by 
American  genius,  the  South  and  North  each  being  credited  with  a  distinct 
invention  of  incomparable  formidableness,  that  had  revolutionized  the 
mode  of  naval  warfare.  The  battle  was  a  drawn  one,  for  both  vessels 
after  four  hours'  engagement  retired  to  repair  damages.  The  Merrimac 
returned  to  Norfolk,  where  she  remained  defending  that  place  until  the 
Confederates  evacuated  the  city,  when,  to  prevent  the  ram  from  falliug 
into  the  hands  of  Federals^^bey-blesLher  up,  May  18,  1862. 

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